Apaches Research Articles

Withdrawal: Baseline Sociodemographic Characteristics and Mental Health Status of Primary Caregivers and Children Attending Schools on the Navajo Nation and White Mountain Apache Tribe During COVID-19.

Withdrawal: 'Baseline Sociodemographic Characteristics and Mental Health Status of Primary Caregivers and Children Attending Schools on the Navajo Nation and White Mountain Apache Tribe During COVID-19' by Shannon Archuleta MPH, Joshuaa D. Allison-Burbank PhD, Allison Ingalls MPH, Renae Begay MPH, Ryan Grass BS, Francene Larzelere PhD, Vanessa Begaye BS, Lacey Howe BS, Alicia Tsosie BS, Angelina Phoebe Keryte BA, Emily E. Haroz PhD, J Sch Health 2024, 10.1111/josh.13419. The above article, published online on 15 January 2024 in Wiley Online Library (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/josh.13419) has been withdrawn by agreement between the authors, the journal's Editor in Chief, Michael W. Long, the American School Health Association and Wiley Periodicals LLC. The withdrawal has been agreed because consent for publication from one of the tribes participating in the study was pending at the time of publication.

Summarizing Implementation Support for School-Based COVID-19 Testing Programs in Southwest American Indian Communities.

American Indian communities have been disproportionately affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, with school closures exacerbating health and education disparities. Project SafeSchools' COVID-19 school-based testing program utilized federal and state funding to provide weekly pooled testing with follow-up rapid antigen testing to students and staff from the White Mountain Apache Tribe and Navajo Nation. The project provided partner schools with training and continual logistical and technical support to aid in school-based testing and adherence to state and local reporting requirements. Using the EPIS (Exploration, Preparation, Implementation, and Sustainment) framework, we identified facilitators and barriers to successful program function. While community support and buy-in were essential for successfully implementing school-based testing in these communities, communication, school staff turnover, and funding are among the most significant challenges. Community partnerships in American Indian communities involving schools and local health authorities can successfully implement testing protocols by remaining flexible and working together to maintain strong lines of communication.

Integrated COVID-19 Interventions in a Native American Community: Arizona, December 25, 2021-January 31, 2022.

COVID-19 has disproportionately affected Indigenous communities. The Whiteriver Service Unit (WRSU) took an integrated public health-health care system delivery approach in collaboration with the White Mountain Apache Tribe to decrease the case fatality rate (CFR). The WRSU performed daily data analyses identifying risk factors, expeditiously treating and proactively vaccinating people during at-home visits. The WRSU's CFR was 0.3% lower than Arizona's (P = .04). Among communities disproportionally affected, an integrated approach using data to drive real-time decision-making among a culturally competent workforce can contribute to decreased CFR. (Am J Public Health. 2023;113(10):1089-1092. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2023.307364).

Evaluation of the Risk Identification for Suicide and Enhanced Care Model in a Native American Community

There are many prognostic models of suicide risk, but few have been prospectively evaluated, and none has been developed specifically for Native American populations. To prospectively validate a statistical risk model implemented in a community setting and evaluate whether use of this model was associated with improved reach of evidence-based care and reduced subsequent suicide-related behavior among high-risk individuals. This prognostic study, done in partnership with the White Mountain Apache Tribe, used data collected by the Apache Celebrating Life program for adults aged 25 years or older identified as at risk for suicide and/or self-harm from January 1, 2017, through August 31, 2022. Data were divided into 2 cohorts: (1) individuals and suicide-related events from the period prior to suicide risk alerts being active (February 29, 2020) and (2) individuals and events from the time after alerts were activated. Aim 1 focused on a prospective validation of the risk model in cohort 1. Aim 2 compared the odds of repeated suicide-related events and the reach of brief contact interventions among high-risk cases between cohort 2 and cohort 1. Across both cohorts, a total of 400 individuals identified as at risk for suicide and/or self-harm (mean [SD] age, 36.5 [10.3] years; 210 females [52.5%]) had 781 suicide-related events. Cohort 1 included 256 individuals with index events prior to active notifications. Most index events (134 [52.5%]) were for binge substance use, followed by 101 (39.6%) for suicidal ideation, 28 (11.0%) for a suicide attempt, and 10 (3.9%) for self-injury. Among these individuals, 102 (39.5%) had subsequent suicidal behaviors. In cohort 1, the majority (220 [86.3%]) were classified as low risk, and 35 individuals (13.3%) were classified as high risk for suicidal attempt or death in the 12 months after their index event. Cohort 2 included 144 individuals with index events after notifications were activated. For aim 1, those classified as high risk had a greater odds of subsequent suicide-related events compared with those classified as low risk (odds ratio [OR], 3.47; 95% CI, 1.53-7.86; P = .003; area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, 0.65). For aim 2, which included 57 individuals classified as high risk across both cohorts, during the time when alerts were inactive, high-risk individuals were more likely to have subsequent suicidal behaviors compared with when alerts were active (OR, 9.14; 95% CI, 1.85-45.29; P = .007). Before the active alerts, only 1 of 35 (2.9%) individuals classified as high risk received a wellness check; after the alerts were activated, 11 of 22 (50.0%) individuals classified as high risk received 1 or more wellness checks. This study showed that a statistical model and associated care system developed in partnership with the White Mountain Apache Tribe enhanced identification of individuals at high risk for suicide and was associated with a reduced risk for subsequent suicidal behaviors and increased reach of care.

Unique Genomic Epidemiology of COVID-19 in the White Mountain Apache Tribe, April to August 2020, Arizona.

The first case of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) within the White Mountain Apache Tribe (WMAT) in Arizona was diagnosed almost 1 month after community transmission was recognized in the state. Aggressive contact tracing allowed for robust genomic epidemiology of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), and subsequent phylogenetic analyses implicated only two virus introductions, which resulted in the spread of two unique viral lineages on the reservation. The phylogenies of these lineages reflect the nature of the introductions, the remoteness of the community, and the extraordinarily high attack rates. The timing and space-limited nature of the outbreaks validate the public health tracing efforts involved, which were illustrated by multiple short transmission chains over a period of several weeks, eventually resulting in extinction of the lineages. Comprehensive sampling and successful infection control efforts are illustrated in both the effective population size analyses and the limited mortality outcomes. The rapid spread and high attack rates of the two lineages may be due to a combination of sociological determinants of the WMAT and a seemingly enhanced transmissibility. The SARS-CoV-2 genomic epidemiology of the WMAT demonstrates a unique local history of the pandemic and highlights the extraordinary and successful efforts of their public health response. IMPORTANCE This article discusses the introduction and spread of two unique viral lineages of SARS-CoV-2 within the White Mountain Apache Tribe in Arizona. Both genomic sequencing and traditional epidemiological strategies (e.g., contract tracing) were used to understand the nature of the spread of both lineages. Beyond providing a robust genomic analysis of the epidemiology of the outbreaks, this work also highlights the successful efforts of the local public health response.

Impacts of a Prescribed Fire on Air Quality in Central New Mexico

A short-duration but high-impact air quality event occurred on 28 November 2018 along the Rio Grande Valley of New Mexico. This fire occurred outside the typical wildfire season, and greatly impacted the air quality in Socorro, NM, and the surroundings. Measurements were taken during the event using an aerosol light scattering technique (integrating nephelometer) and a particulate mass concentration monitor (DustTrak PM optical monitor). The instruments sampled the ambient air during the event on the campus of the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology in Socorro, New Mexico. The peak values on a 5-min basis of light scattering and the PM mass concentration reached 470 Mm−1 and 270 µg/m3, respectively. We examined the meteorological context of the event using local meteorological data and back trajectories using the NOAA HYSPLIT model to determine atmospheric transport and possible sources. Several fires, both prescribed and wildfires, occurred in the region including a prescribed burn at Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge (17 km south-southeast of the receptor site). The data suggest that the prescribed burn at Bosque del Apache was the dominant contributor due to transport evidence and the event’s narrow spatiotemporal extent. The increasing importance of restoring ecosystem function using prescribed fire in wildland fire management will likely lead to more frequent air quality impacts and sets up policy tradeoffs that require a balance between these public goals. This study examines the evidence of the effects of a prescribed fire in a protected wildland area impacting the air quality in a nearby populated area.

Effectiveness of a COVID-19 Vaccine Rollout in a Highly Affected American Indian Community, San Carlos Apache Tribe, December 2020-February 2021.

COVID-19 has disproportionately affected American Indian Tribes, including the San Carlos Apache Tribe, which resides on 1.8 million acres in Arizona and has 16 788 official members. High vaccination rates among American Indian/Alaska Native people in the United States have been reported, but information on how individual Tribes achieved these high rates is scarce. We describe the COVID-19 epidemiology and vaccine rollout in the San Carlos Apache Tribe using data extracted from electronic health records from the San Carlos Apache Healthcare Corporation (SCAHC). By mid-December 2020, 19% of the San Carlos Apache population had received a positive reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction test for SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. The Tribe prioritized for vaccination population groups with the highest risk for severe COVID-19 outcomes (eg, those aged ≥65 years, who had a 46% risk of hospitalization if infected vs 13% overall). SCAHC achieved high early COVID-19 vaccination rates in the San Carlos community relative to the state of Arizona (47.6 vs 25.2 doses per 100 population by February 27, 2021). These vaccination rates reflected several strategies that were implemented to achieve high COVID-19 vaccine access and uptake, including advance planning, departmental vaccine education sessions within SCAHC, radio and Facebook postings featuring Tribal leaders in the Apache language, and pop-up community vaccine clinics. The San Carlos Apache Tribe's vaccine rollout strategy was an early success story and may provide a model for future vaccination campaigns in other Tribal nations and rural communities in the United States.

Measuring the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on Diné and White Mountain Apache school personnel, families, and students: protocol for a prospective longitudinal cohort study

BackgroundThis paper describes the protocol for a longitudinal cohort study, “Project SafeSchools” (PSS), which focuses on measuring the effects of COVID-19 and the return to in-person learning on Diné (Navajo) and White Mountain Apache (Apache) youth, parents, and educators. The early surges of the COVID-19 pandemic led to the closure of most reservation and border town schools serving Diné and Apache communities. This study aims to: (1) understand the barriers and facilitators to school re-opening and in-person school attendance from the perspective of multiple stakeholders in Diné and Apache communities; and (2) evaluate the educational, social, emotional, physical, and mental health impacts of returning to in-person learning for caregivers and youth ages 4–16 who reside or work on the Diné Nation and the White Mountain Apache Tribal lands.MethodsWe aim to recruit up to N = 200 primary caregivers of Diné and Apache youth ages 4–16 and up to N = 120 school personnel. In addition, up to n = 120 of these primary caregivers and their children, ages 11–16, will be selected to participate in qualitative interviews to learn more about the effects of the pandemic on their health and wellbeing. Data from caregiver and school personnel participants will be collected in three waves via self-report surveys that measure COVID-19 related behaviors and attitudes, mental health, educational attitudes, and cultural practices and beliefs for both themselves and their child (caregiver participants only). We hypothesize that an individual’s engagement with a variety of cultural activities during school closures and as school re-opened will have a protective effect on adult and youth mental health as they return to in-person learning.DiscussionThe results of this study will inform the development or implementation of preventative interventions that may help Diné and Apache youth and their families recover from the negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, and positively impact their health and wellness.

The Apache Diaspora: Four Centuries of Displacement and Survival

The Apache Diaspora: Four Centuries of Displacement and Survival

“United States shall so legislate and act as to secure the permanent prosperity and happiness of said Indians”: Policy Implications of the Apache Nation’s 1852 Treaty

As binding contracts among sovereigns, treaties between Indigenous and Western Nations set parameters for and guide policies that recognize Indigenous Peoples’ rights and that harmonize those rights with non-Indigenous interests. Because treaties engage specific terms, parties, and geographies, detailed analyses of treaty texts and historical contexts are required foundations for understanding Treaty Rights and for proposing policy reforms. The litigious “Save Oak Flat” battle over the Resolution Copper mine proposed for Apache Nation Treaty Territory in present day Arizona prompts close scrutiny of the 1852 Treaty between the United States and the Apache Nation. Because the 1852 Treaty guarantees rights to both parties, it provides mandates and suggests co-management mechanisms to safeguard Apache Nation Treaty Territory and Apache rights to religious practice free from threats of sacred site destruction.

Implementation of a COVID-19 Screening Testing Program in a Rural, Tribal Nation: Experience of the San Carlos Apache Tribe, January-February 2021.

The COVID-19 pandemic has disproportionately affected tribal populations, including the San Carlos Apache Tribe. Universal screening testing in a community using rapid antigen tests could allow for near-real-time identification of COVID-19 cases and result in reduced SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Published experiences of such testing strategies in tribal communities are lacking. Accordingly, tribal partners, with support from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, implemented a serial testing program using the Abbott BinaxNOW rapid antigen test in 2 tribal casinos and 1 detention center on the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation for a 4-week pilot period from January to February 2021. Staff members at each setting, and incarcerated adults at the detention center, were tested every 3 or 4 days with BinaxNOW. During the 4-week period, 3834 tests were performed among 716 participants at the sites. Lessons learned from implementing this program included demonstrating (1) the plausibility of screening testing programs in casino and prison settings, (2) the utility of training non-laboratory personnel in rapid testing protocols that allow task shifting and reduce the workload on public health employees and laboratory staff, (3) the importance of building and strengthening partnerships with representatives from the community and public and private sectors, and (4) the need to implement systems that ensure confidentiality of test results and promote compliance among participants. Our experience and the lessons learned demonstrate that a serial rapid antigen testing strategy may be useful in work settings during the COVID-19 pandemic as schools and businesses are open for service.

Trends of forest and ecosystem services changes in the Mescalero Apache Tribal Lands

Forests are critically important for the provision of ecosystem services. The Sacramento Mountains of New Mexico, USA, are a hotspot for conservation management and the Mescalero Apache Tribe's homeland. The multiple ecosystem services and functions and its high vulnerability to changes in climate conditions make their forests of ecological, cultural, and social importance. We used data from the Mescalero Apache Tribal Lands (MATL) Continuous Forest Inventory over 30 yr to analyze changes in the structure and composition of ecosystems as well as trends in ecosystem services. Many provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services were shared among the MATL ecosystems and were tied to foundational species dominance, which could serve as a reliable indicator of ecosystem functioning. Our analysis indicates that the MATL are in an ongoing transition from conifer forests to woodlands with declines in two foundation species, quaking aspen and ponderosa pine, linked to past forest management and changing climate. In addition, we detected a decrease in species richness and tree size variability, amplifying the risk of forest loss in a rapid climatic change. Continuous permanent plots located on a dense grid (1 × 1 km) such as the ones monitored by the Bureau of Indian Affairs are the most detailed data available to estimate forests multiresource transitions over time. Native lands across the USA could serve as the leading edge of detecting decadal-scale forest changes and tracking climate impacts.

Tribal Sovereignty Is Bestowed Upon Us by the Creator

J O U R N A L O F A M E R I C A N I N D I A N E D U C A T I O N — 6 0 , I S S U E 3 123 Commentary Tribal Sovereignty Is Bestowed Upon Us by the Creator PHILIP J. STEVENS, WITH LOUIE LORENZO JR., AND MARTIN AHUMADA Afirst of its kind Tribal Nation Building in Higher Education Convening was held on the University of Idaho campus just days before the United States felt the full effect of the COVID-­ 19 pandemic .1 Dynamic discussions of tribal self-­ determination, growth, and space within the academia–­ specifically as a means to build a better tomorrow—were shared against an abstract backdrop. As Convening participants returned to where many would unknowingly shelter for the next year and a half, the importance of nation-­ building discussions became even more important as we witnessed the United States struggle to provide a meaningful response to a pandemic that began ravaging the nation in spring 2020. The dreams and nightmares of personal freedoms were unveiled as some citizens fought to determine the history of the pandemic as imaginary in nature and others saw the pandemic as a reminder of societal responsibilities to and respect for each other. In essence, the pandemic allowed us to see with extraordinary clarity that our actions cannot take place in isolation but must be a collective effort requiring proper guidance. We may choose to push a narrative that simply is the loudest, or we may choose to listen and act with communities as our guidance. For this commentary, I (Philip Stevens) dialogued with Louie Lorenzo (a San Carlos Apache spiritual leader and culturally based youth wellness leader), and Dr. Martin Ahumada (President of San Carlos Apache College, whose heritage includes the Indigenous Peoples of Northern Mexico) about their experiences “acting with community” and reflections on the pathways forward for building and strengthening the San Carlos Apache Nation post-­ COVID-­ 19 pandemic. Our dialog for this reflection occurred via 124 J O U R N A L O F A M E R I C A N I N D I A N E D U C A T I O N — 6 0 , I S S U E 3 written and oral communication in the spring of 2021. As a note of voice, I use first-­ person to synthesize our ideas and to share my own experiences related to Apache well-­ being. I use direct quotes to represent specific perspectives that my co-­ authors, Lorenzo and Ahumada, provided in conversation with me. Tribal Resilience in Times of COVID-­ 19 Many tribes felt the immediate effects of the virus. Dr. Anthony Fauci, an immunology specialist and director of the U.S. federal government’s National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, stated that minoritized communities have felt “the undeniable effects of racism” (Associated Press, 2021) in the context of the Covid-­ 19 pandemic. “Now, very few of these comorbidities have racial determinants,” Fauci said. “Almost all relate to the social determinants of health dating back to disadvantageous conditions that some people of color find themselves in from birth regarding the availability of an adequate diet, access to health care, and the undeniable effects of racism in our society” (Associated Press, 2021, para. 4). On an economic level, the pandemic has also severely impacted many tribes’ ability to fund their response to the virus. As reported in The Harvard Gazette: Over the past few decades, Native American nations have increasingly taken on greater responsibility for providing a wide range of governmental services on their lands; in many instances the same services that state and local governments offer their citizens. Unlike state and local governments, however, the tribes cannot collect adequate taxes to pay for these operations, making them dependent on income from casinos and other enterprises to pay for law enforcement, public safety, and social services. (Mineo, 2020, para. 5) The fear of “tribalism” is as misplaced as the euphemism “Indian-­ giver”; perhaps the assignment of cultural fears is more telling of the culture than that of which it is assigned. Against the backdrop of colonialist assimilation strategies, the fear...

A Woodcutter’s Story: Perceptions and Uses of Mathematics on the San Carlos Apache Reservation

This article introduces the term Apache mathematics to define mathematics used by Apache people. Using ethnographic, autoethnographic, and qualitative interviews, the author highlights the cultural production of mathematics in the San Carlos Apache community, contrasting hegemonic Eurocentric claims to mathematics. Findings contributes Apache perspectives on the cultural uses of mathematics, as strength and intelligence central for shifting school‐based pedagogy meted to Apache students in current contexts of gross educational inequities.

Supporting Indigenous adaptation in a changing climate

Indigenous peoples are both disproportionately threatened by global climate change and uniquely positioned to enhance local adaptive capacities. We identify actions that support Indigenous adaptation based on organizational and community perspectives. Our data come from two Indigenous organizations that share cultural heritage stewardship missions—the Stó:lō Research and Resource Management Centre (Stó:lō Nation, British Columbia) and the Fort Apache Heritage Foundation (White Mountain Apache Tribe, Arizona). These organizations collaborated with us in exploring community perceptions of climate effects, investigating community adaptation opportunities and constraints, and identifying actions that support Indigenous adaptation. Research methods included engagement with organizational collaborators and semi-structured interviews with organizational representatives and community members and staff. Results confirm that Stó:lō and Apache territories and communities have experienced climate change impacts, such as changes in temperature, hydrology, and increase in extreme weather events. Climate effects are cumulative to colonial depletion of traditional environments and further reduce access to traditional resources, practices, and food security. Results indicated that certain actions are identified by community members as adaptation enablers across case studies—most prominently, perpetuation of Indigenous culture and knowledge, climate education that is tailored to local contexts, collaborative decision-making among community institutions, and integration of climate adaptation into ongoing organizational programs. We conclude that Indigenous-owned organizations are engaged in the expansion of adaptive capacity and hold potential to further support their communities.

We Know Who We Are and What Is Needed

AbstractOverall healing, harmony, and balance within Ndee (Apache) communities can be understood through the Ndee term Gózhó—“beauty, balance, and harmony.” Beyond this Ndee cultural precept, however, how are such states of Gózhó achieved, whether in the past or today? Within archaeological research on Ndee lands, achieving healing and promoting health is crucial to overall individual and community well-being. Healing activities that contribute to overall states of Gózhó can take many forms. As Rybak and Decker-Fitts (2009:334) suggest, “Native American healing practices exemplify key cultural perspectives and influence the identity development of Native American individuals.” Such healing practices including the use of yellow cattail pollen (hádńdín; Typha spp.) for protection are based on traditions and perspectives typically outside the mainstream of Western psychological tenets, yet they can have significant impact on the sense of well-being for Ndee communities. Ndee cultural specialists with the White Mountain Apache Tribe demonstrate that such traditions and perspectives are not only necessary for continued community well-being but are powerful conduits amplifying the past as present, which contribute to the ongoing cyclical and reciprocal nature of the ways Ndee communities have related to Nígosdzán—Mother Earth—since time immemorial.

Remote Sensing Analysis to Quantify Change in Woodland Canopy Cover on the San Carlos Apache Reservation, Arizona, USA (1935 vs. 2017)

Since the late 1800s, pinyon–juniper woodland across the western U.S. has increased in density and areal extent and encroached into former grassland areas. The San Carlos Apache Tribe wants to gain qualitative and quantitative information on the historical conditions of their tribal woodlands to use as a baseline for restoration efforts. At the San Carlos Apache Reservation, in east-central Arizona, large swaths of woodlands containing varying mixtures of juniper (Juniperus spp.), pinyon (Pinus spp.) and evergreen oak (Quercus spp.) are culturally important to the Tribe and are a focus for restoration. To determine changes in canopy cover, we developed image analysis techniques to monitor tree and large shrub cover using 1935 and 2017 aerial imagery and compared results over the 82-year interval. Results showed a substantial increase in the canopy cover of the former savannas, and encroachment (mostly juniper) into the former grasslands of Big Prairie. The Tribe is currently engaged in converting juniper woodland back into an open savanna, more characteristic of assumed pre-reservation conditions for that area. Our analysis shows areas on Bee Flat that, under the Tribe’s active restoration efforts, have returned woodland canopy cover to levels roughly analogous to that measured in 1935.

Insights into the restoration and sustainable management of Emory oak: A southwestern cultural keystone species

Emory oak acorns are a critically important commodity for Western Apache Tribal Nations, both as a food source and also for cultural and ceremonial uses. The Apache people historically inhabited much of Emory oak's range, but these lands are now divided among many entities, with the majority of trees occurring off-reservation in public domains. Based on observations of diminished acorn production and seedling recruitment, Apache Elders called for restoration and improved management of Emory oaks on public lands to ensure the long-term availability of acorns for Western Apache Tribes. Ecological information is critical to effectively design restoration efforts and successfully manage Emory oak, but little is known about Emory oak’s current ecological status on the landscape. Here, we use Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) data to examine factors that influence Emory oak distribution, abundance, and demography, and relate findings to observations made by Tribal Elders. We found that Emory oak distribution was constrained by metrics related to water availability. Drought and fire occurred frequently in Emory oak habitats, highlighting the likely importance of these disturbance events in determining oak population dynamics. Emory oak growth was predicted by environmental variables related to water availability, like physiographic class and elevation, and population characteristics, like stand age and size, but not by land ownership classifications. Interestingly, no environmental variables explained patterns of seedling recruitment and mortality perhaps owing to the stochastic nature of these events and the coarse temporal scale of FIA data in AZ. Drier, warmer conditions projected by climate models was shown to reduce future suitable Emory oak habitat, particularly in central AZ. Restoration efforts should focus on increasing water availability for Emory oaks and reducing the likelihood of high intensity fires. This could be accomplished, in part, by thinning competing vegetation at Emory oaks stands and restoring historical fire regimes. Given projections that suggest drier regional climatic patterns, strategic seed augmentation aimed at enhancing population resilience through selection of drought-adapted genotypes may also be warranted. Data were insufficient to confirm Apache Elders’ observations of diminished acorn production and seedling recruitment, highlighting the need for comprehensive demographic analyses of Emory oaks in the Southwest.

On Becoming Apache by Harry Mithlo and Conger Beasley Jr.

Reviewed by: On Becoming Apache by Harry Mithlo and Conger Beasley Jr. Marcus Macktima On Becoming Apache. By Harry Mithlo and Conger Beasley Jr. (Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press, 2020. Pp. 160.) As a scholar and member of the San Carlos Apache tribe in Arizona, I can see the obvious differences between our traditional stories and those written from non-Indigenous and non-Apachean perspectives. In many cases, these interpretations miss significant nuances; being Apache is deeper than just tribal enrollment or citizenry. Harry Mithlo, a Comanche and Chiricahua Apache, and Conger Beasley Jr., a non-Indigenous writer of dozens of books related to the American West, bring their experiences to the fore through Harry's father, Watson Mithlo, a Chiricahua Apache and prisoner of war with the Apache warrior Geronimo at Castillo de San Marcos, Florida, and Fort Sill, Oklahoma. Watson, who died in 1993 at the age of 107, recalls here his personal stories and unique perspectives on the events that unfolded following the Apache Wars—the long-lasting armed conflicts between Apache groups and U.S. military troops during the second half of the nineteenth century. This book is by no means a retelling of the battles or confrontations that have been glorified and fetishized by popular culture and non-Indigenous scholars fixated on Geronimo and his band of "renegades." Instead, these stories exemplify the importance of Apache spirituality and the Apache lifeway. Moreover, through the hardships they experienced as prisoners of war and as what the federal government would call "free" individuals, Watson Mithlo and his family demonstrate the resilience of Apache people. Starting with a train ride in Arizona, Watson discusses Apache travels from Arizona to Florida and ends at Fort Sill, where many Chiricahuas remain and are now recognized as the Fort Sill Apache tribe. Along with Watson's and Harry's descriptions of Apache life, Conger offers commentary, providing the reader context and explanation for comprehending the importance of specific aspects of the history. While much of Conger's commentary is helpful, a reader unfamiliar with Apache lineages might become confused as the stories turn to Oklahoma Territory without enough explanation about the presence there of Plains Apaches, a separate people with a similar language but who are different altogether. Stories related to the interactions between the Chiricahua and Plains [End Page 345] Apache peoples would have been an interesting and welcome addition. Despite this and some ill-placed comments, I found many of Conger's perceptions of Apache people as "outsiders" interesting. While Harry and Watson were happy to share many things with Conger, they were not willing to share all of their Apache secrets: Conger recounts Harry saying to him, "Apaches don't tell outsiders everything" (104), emphasizing the importance of knowledge and its sacred status to the people. Watson Mithlo's account of his time as a prisoner of war is a great addition to works published by other Chiricahua Apaches, namely Geronimo's autobiography, Geronimo's Story of His Life (Duffield, 1906), and Jason Betzinez's I Fought with Geronimo (Stackpole, 1959). Watson relays his accounts with these Apache men, especially Betzinez, whom he describes as a "ferocious warrior" when young, but a "kind of fuddy-duddy" when older (75). The emphasis on Apache spirituality, while incomplete, still enhances the story of the Apache experience after 1886. Harry Mithlo and Conger Beasley Jr. have done well by Watson Mithlo in expressing the Chiricahua Apache way of life. Marcus Macktima University of Oklahoma Copyright © 2021 The Texas State Historical Association

Changing how archaeology is done in Native American contexts: An Ndee (Apache) case study

The White Mountain Apache Tribe Cultural Heritage Resource Best Management Practices (WMATCHRBMPs) present and delineate in guideline form cultural heritage resource definitions, management, and necessary steps before, during, and after project implementation for any ground-disturbing projects potentially adversely affecting cultural heritage resources on Ndee (Apache) trust lands. However, since the tribe’s adoption of the practices, the application of Ndee tenets found within the guidelines to real-world cultural and archaeological methods and practices remains scant. Embedded in the Ndee cultural tenets is the tenet of “respect,” which I will argue can be used as a tool by non- Ndee researchers to critically reflect on their own research agendas and to guide research projects with Ndee communities. By foregrounding respect within various ongoing archaeological project-related occurrences, contemporary Ndee experiences, defining Ndee material trait lists, superiority statements, archaeological categorizations, and stereotypical underpinnings, better paths forward for collaborative research with Ndee and other Native American communities can be highlighted.