Interpretation Of Anxiety Symptoms Research Articles

Mastery Imagery Ability Is Associated With Positive Anxiety and Performance During Psychological Stress.

Mastery imagery (i.e., images of being in control and coping in difficult situations) is used to regulate anxiety. The ability to image this content is associated with trait confidence and anxiety, but research examining mastery imagery ability's association with confidence and anxiety in response to a stressful event is scant. The present study examined whether trait mastery imagery ability mediated the relationship between confidence and anxiety, and the subsequent associations on performance in response to an acute psychological stress. Participants (N = 130; 55% male; Mage = 19.94 years; SD = 1.07 years) completed assessments of mastery imagery ability and engaged in a standardized acute psychological stress task. Immediately prior to the task, confidence, cognitive and somatic anxiety intensity, and interpretation of anxiety symptoms regarding the task were assessed. Path analyses supported a model whereby mastery imagery ability mediated the relationship between confidence and cognitive and somatic anxiety interpretation. Greater mastery imagery ability and confidence were both directly associated with better performance on the stress task. Mastery imagery ability may help individuals experience more facilitative anxiety and perform better during stressful tasks. Improving mastery imagery ability by enhancing self-confidence may help individuals successfully cope with anxiety elicited during stressful situations.

Associations between heart rate, perceived heart rate, and anxiety during acute psychological stress

ABSTRACTBackground: Acute psychological stress elicits increases in heart rate (HR) and anxiety. Theories propose associations between HR, perceived HR, and anxiety during stress. However, anxiety is often measured as a unidimensional construct which limits a comprehensive understanding of these relationships.Objectives: This research explored whether HR reactivity or perceived HR change was more closely associated with cognitive and somatic anxiety during acute psychological stress.Design: Two laboratory-based studies were conducted.Methods: In a single laboratory session, healthy male (N = 71; study 1) and female (N = 70; study 2) university students completed three laboratory psychological stress tasks (counterbalanced), each with a preceding baseline. Heart rate, perceived HR change, and cognitive and somatic anxiety intensity and interpretation of anxiety symptoms were assessed immediately following each task. Data were aggregated across tasks.Results: Actual HR change was unrelated to anxiety intensity, but was associated with more debilitative interpretations of anxiety (study 2). Perceptions of HR change were consistently associated with greater intensity of cognitive (study 1) and somatic (study 1 and 2) anxiety.Conclusions: Perceived HR rather than actual HR is more closely associated with anxiety intensity during psychological stress. The findings have implications for stress management and the clinical treatment of anxiety symptoms.

Anxiety symptom interpretation: A potential mechanism explaining the cardiorespiratory fitness–anxiety relationship

BackgroundHigher cardiorespiratory fitness is associated with lower trait anxiety, but research has not examined whether fitness is associated with state anxiety levels and the interpretation of these symptoms. The aim of this paper was to (1) reexamine the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and general anxiety and (2) examine anxiety intensity and perceptions of these symptoms prior to an acute psychological stress task. MethodsParticipants (N=185; 81% female; Mage=18.04, SD=0.43 years) completed a 10-minute Paced Serial Addition Test. General anxiety was assessed using the anxiety subscale of the Hospital Anxiety Depression Scale. Cognitive and somatic anxiety intensity and perceptions of symptoms was assessed immediately prior to the acute psychological stress task using the Immediate Anxiety Measures Scale. Cardiorespiratory fitness was calculated using a validated standardized formula. ResultsHigher levels of cardiorespiratory fitness were associated with lower levels of general anxiety. Path analysis supported a model whereby perceptions of anxiety symptoms mediated the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and levels of anxiety experienced during the stress task; results remained significant after adjusting for general anxiety levels. Specifically, higher levels of cardiorespiratory fitness were positively associated with more positive perceptions of anxiety symptoms and lower levels of state anxiety. LimitationsA standard formula rather than maximal testing was used to assess cardiorespiratory fitness, self-report questionnaires were used to assess anxiety, and the study was cross-sectional in design. ConclusionsResults suggest a potential mechanism explaining how cardiorespiratory fitness can reduce anxiety levels.

Anxiety symptom interpretation and performance expectations in high-anxious, low-anxious, defensive high-anxious and repressor individuals

To date, no research has investigated score predictions and anxiety interpretation in high-anxious, low-anxious, defensive high-anxious and repressor individuals. This study examined Eysenck’s (1997) predictions for cognitive biases on future performance expectations in all four groups. This study was conducted in an ecologically-valid sporting environment. Competitive shooters completed the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale and the Sport Anxiety Scale prior to a major competition. Percentile splits identified the four defensiveness/anxiety groups. The modified Competitive Sport Anxiety Inventory-2 was used to assess the intensity and direction of anxiety prior to competition. Participants predicted their expected shooting score. The hypothesis that repressors would interpret their anxiety as more facilitative to performance compared to low-anxious individuals was partially supported. Repressors were more optimistic in their performance prediction in contrast to defensive high-anxious performers who, in turn, were more pessimistic compared to the other two groupings. High-anxious performers, contrary to predictions, demonstrated optimism in their future performance. The findings of this study corroborate the theoretical predictions and the evidence from previous studies with sport performers. Future research should continue to investigate the influence of cognitive biases on performance predictions in sporting environments using Weinberger et al.’s classifications.

An investigation into musicians’ thoughts and perceptions during performance

Given the current state of understanding surrounding musicians’ experiences while performing, this study sought to investigate musicians’ thoughts and perceptions during performances and the perceived impact their evaluation of those thoughts and perceptions has on their subsequent musical activities. Twenty-nine student and professional classical musicians were interviewed concerning factors perceived to contribute to the quality of performances, experiences prior to and during performances, and their responses to performances. Self-perceived successful performances were often connected with feelings of sufficient preparation and positive mind-sets, and presented a high yet attainable level of challenge. Less successful performances were typically linked with inadequate preparation, negative mental outlooks, frustration, and lack of enjoyment during the performance itself. Furthermore, the results pointed to the relevance of facilitative versus debilitative perfectionism, locus of control, interpretation of anxiety symptoms, and the interaction between self-talk, self-efficacy, and performance quality to musicians’ performance experiences and satisfaction.

Reflective practice, experience, and the interpretation of anxiety symptoms

We offer an examination of the processes athletes undertake following a sporting experience in order to learn how to interpret their anxiety-related symptoms as facilitative to performance. Six experienced, elite athletes were interviewed regarding the reflective practices adopted following both positive and negative critical incidents with a view to generating knowledge about their competitive anxiety symptoms. Composite sequence analysis procedures were employed to allow data to be considered as meaningful sequences for both the positive and negative incidents. Findings showed distinctions between the effects of positive and negative incidents on the reflective and learning processes and how this influenced the further appraisal of competitive anxiety symptoms. Support is provided for the use of reflective practice as a framework for experiential learning within sport.

Anxiety symptom interpretation in high-anxious, defensive high-anxious, low-anxious and repressor sport performers

For the first time in a sport setting this study examined the intensity and direction of the competitive state anxiety response in collegiate athletes as a function of four different coping styles: high-anxious, defensive high-anxious, low-anxious and repressors. Specifically, the study predicted that repressors would interpret competitive state anxiety symptoms as more facilitative compared to high-anxious, defensive high-anxious, and low-anxious performers. Separate Multivariate Analyses of Variance (MANOVA) were performed on the intensity and direction subscales of the modified Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2). A significant main effect was identified for trait worry revealing that low trait anxious athletes reported lower intensities of cognitive and somatic anxiety and higher self-confidence and interpreted these as more facilitative than high trait anxious athletes. The prediction that performers with a repressive coping style would interpret state anxiety symptoms as more facilitative than performers with non-repressive coping styles was not supported.

Anxiety symptom interpretation and performance predictions in high-anxious, low-anxious and repressor sport performers

This study examined whether the tendency to interpret anxiety symptoms as facilitative was more a characteristic of individuals classified as repressors than high-anxious and low-anxious sports performers. The influence of the cognitive biases of high-anxious and repressor individuals on future performance expectations was also examined. The state anxiety levels, directional interpretation of anxiety and performance expectations of golfers classified as high-anxious, low-anxious and repressors were examined prior to competition. Performance expectations were compared to actual performances achieved. The proposal that repressors would interpret anxiety symptoms as more facilitative than high-anxious and low-anxious individuals was not supported. Repressors were found to be overly optimistic regarding future performance, consistently predicting better performance than they achieved. Contrary to predictions, performance expectations of the high-anxious group did not differ from those actually achieved. Thus, the proposal that high-anxious individuals would be overly pessimistic was not supported. These findings are discussed within the theory of trait anxiety proposed by Eysenck (1997).

A qualitative investigation of the temporal patterning of the precompetitive anxiety response

The aim of this study was to examine retrospective perceptions and causal beliefs about temporal experiences of competitive anxiety and related symptoms in the lead up to competition. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 9 elite performers to examine the interaction of intensity, frequency and direction of symptoms associated with competitive anxiety before competition. Data analysis identified six causal networks that supported theoretical predictions suggesting that intensity of cognitive anxiety symptoms remained relatively stable in the lead up to competition, whereas somatic anxiety peaked sharply at the onset of performance. Frequency of anxiety symptoms increased as the competition approached and changes in interpretation of anxiety symptoms were also reported, with self-confidence identified as a moderating variable. The findings highlight the dynamic properties of the stress response and emphasize the need to consider the idiosyncratic nature of the level, frequency and interpretation of performers' precompetitive experiences.

Intensity and interpretation of anxiety symptoms in elite and non-elite sports performers

Previous research which has examined debilitative and facilitative dimensions of anxiety has tended to adopt a unidimensional anxiety framework and to investigate relationships with academic (cognitive) performance. The major purpose of this study was to employ a multidimensional anxiety framework and to examine ‘intensity’ (i.e. level) and ‘direction’ (i.e. interpretation of level as either debilitative of facilitative) of anxiety symptoms in the context of sports (motor) performance. The individual difference variable of skill level was investigated as a mediator of these responses. Elite ( n = 97) and non-elite ( n = 114) competitive swimmers completed a modified version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 during the period preceding an important race. The findings showed that there was no difference between the two groups on the intensity of cognitive and somatic anxiety symptoms, but that elite performers interpreted both anxiety states as being more facilitative to performance than the non-elite performers. Furthermore, self-confidence was higher in the elite group. Further analyses investigated differences between those swimmers who reported their anxiety as debilitative and those who reported it as facilitative in the elite and non-elite groups. These showed that anxiety intensity levels were higher in the debilitated than the facilitated swimmers in the non-elite group, but no such differences were evident in the elite group. These findings provide further support for the distinction between intensity and direction of competitive state anxiety symptoms. They also emphasize the importance of skill level as an individual difference variable in the examination of the nature of the competitive anxiety response.