Use Of Antimicrobials In Agriculture Research Articles

Lactiplantibacillus plantarum Lac16 Attenuates Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 Infection by Inhibiting Virulence Traits and Improving Intestinal Epithelial Barrier Function.

Large-scale use of antimicrobials in agriculture and medicine contributes to antibiotic residues in raw foods, the spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and drug pollution, which seriously threatens human health and imposes significant economic burdens on society, suggesting the need for novel therapeutic options that prevent or control zoonoses. In this study, four probiotics were selected to assess their capability to alleviate pathogen-induced damage. Results showed that a simulated gastrointestinal juice and bile tolerated L. plantarum Lac16 with high lactic acid secretion can significantly inhibit the growth of multiple zoonotic pathogens. Lac16 also significantly inhibited the biofilm formation and mRNA expression of virulence traits (genes related to virulence, toxins, flagella biogenesis and motility, antibiotic resistance, biofilm formation and AI-2 quorum sensing) of enterohemorrhagic E. coli O157:H7 (EHEC). Furthermore, Lac16 and Lac26 significantly protected C. elegans against zoonotic pathogen-induced (EHEC, S. typhimurium, C. perfringens) deaths. Moreover, Lac16 significantly promoted epithelial repair and ameliorated lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced intestinal epithelial apoptosis and barrier dysfunction by activating the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, and markedly reduced LPS-induced inflammatory responses by inhibiting the TLR4/MyD88 signaling pathway. The present results indicate that Lac16 attenuates enterohemorrhagic E. coli infection-induced damage by inhibiting key virulence traits of E. coli, promoting epithelial repair and improving intestinal epithelial barrier function, which may be mediated by the activated Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway and the inhibited TLR4/MyD88 signaling pathway of the intestinal epithelium.

Current trends in the use of antimicrobials in agriculture

The article presents the results of an analysis of the current state of affairs in the field of the latest trends in the use of antimicrobial drugs in agriculture. Over the past year, more than one hundred sixty thousand tons of antimicrobial drugs have been used in animal husbandry worldwide. These drugs are used to prevent and treat diseases in animals, increase their productivity, and increase the output of animal products. As a result, in recent years, many countries have taken measures to reduce the use of antimicrobial drugs in agriculture. For example, the European Union banned the use of antibiotics to stimulate the growth of animals in 2006, and in 2019, a law was passed in the United States limiting the use of antibiotics to prevent animal diseases. However, there are still many obstacles to more responsible use of antimicrobial drugs in agriculture. A lack of alternative treatment methods, insufficient education and awareness of farmers, as well as regulation and control, all impede effective measures to combat antibiotic resistance. Thus, more extensive measures are necessary to reduce the use of antimicrobial drugs in agriculture, as well as improve regulation and monitoring in this area.

Prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in urine, blood, and wound pathogens among rural patients in Karnataka, India

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is increasing in tertiary-care hospitals across India, which consumes more antibiotics than any other country. Microorganisms with novel resistance mechanisms, initially isolated in India, are now recognized worldwide. Until now, most efforts to stem AMR in India have focused on the inpatient setting. Ministry of Health data now suggest that rural areas are playing a more significant role in the pathogenesis of AMR than was previously appreciated. Thus, we conducted this pilot study to ascertain whether AMR is common in pathogens causing infections acquired in the wider rural community. We performed a retrospective prevalence survey of 100 urine, 102 wound, and 102 blood cultures obtained from patients who were admitted to a tertiary-care facility in Karnataka, India, with infections acquired in the community. The study population included patients >18 years of age who (1) were referred to the hospital by primary care doctors, (2) had a positive blood, urine, or wound culture, and (3) were not previously hospitalized. Bacterial identification and antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) were carried out on all isolates. Enterobacteriaceae were the most common pathogens isolated from urine and blood cultures. Significant resistance to quinolones, aminoglycosides, carbapenems, and cephalosporins was noted among pathogens isolated from all cultures. Specifically, high resistance rates (>45%) to quinolones, penicillin, and cephalosporins were evident among all 3 types of culture. Among blood and urinary pathogens, there were high resistance rates (>25%) to both aminoglycosides and carbapenems. Efforts to stem AMR rates in India need to focus on rural populations. Such efforts will need to characterize antimicrobial overprescribing practices, healthcare-seeking behaviors, and antimicrobial use in agriculture in rural settings.

Review on designing a comprehensive macroeconomic modeling strategy for antimicrobial resistance

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a dominant and growing global health crisis that led to1.27 million deaths in 2019. Given the broad use of antimicrobials in agriculture and farming and industrial operations in addition to healthcare and a range of factors affecting AMR, including climate variability, demographic trends, and plastic and essence pollution, an frugality-wide approach is essential to assess its macroeconomic counter accusations. This study summarizes the being literature on the linked factors driving AMR and reviews the factors that have been considered in being macroeconomic studies. We present three fabrics to conceptualize the frugality-wide use of antimicrobials, the epidemiology of AMR, and how AMR affects the economy in a stylized frugality bedded within a more expansive system. We propose how the AMR impacts could be counterplotted onto profitable variables, bandy the significance of these shocks, and outline how AMR elaboration scripts could be designed, particularly with reference to climate change, demographic trends, and associated socioeconomic changes. We also bandy how modeling studies could be bettered to increase their mileage to policymakers and increase similarity across studies. We conclude with the major policy counter accusations arising from the study which emphasizes an frugality-wide one- health approach to address AMR; regulation of the antimicrobial force chain and incentivizing inventions; global cooperation to address AMR, and easing misgivings for policymaking via spanning up the surveillance of AMR, encouraging exploration collaboration and enabling access to data on AMR and antimicrobial consumption.

More than an anthropogenic phenomenon: Antimicrobial resistance in ungulates from natural and agricultural environments

Widely considered an anthropogenic phenomenon, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a naturally occurring mechanism that microorganisms use to gain competitive advantage. AMR represents a significant threat to public health and has generated criticism towards the overuse of antimicrobial drugs. Livestock have been proposed as important reservoirs for AMR accumulation. Here, we show that assemblages of AMR genes in cattle and ungulates from natural environments (Yellowstone and Rocky Mountain National Parks) are all dominated by genes conferring resistance to tetracyclines. However, cattle feces contained higher proportions of erm(A-X) genes conferring resistance to macrolide antibiotics. Medically important AMR genes differed between cattle and natural ungulates, but cumulatively were more predominant in natural soils. Our findings suggest that the commonly described predominance of tetracycline resistance in cattle feces is a natural phenomenon among multiple ungulate species and not solely a result of antimicrobial drug exposure. Yet, the virtual absence of macrolide resistance genes in natural ungulates suggests that macrolide usage in agriculture may enrich these genes in cattle. Our results show that antimicrobial use in agriculture may be promoting a potential reservoir for specific types of AMR (i.e., macrolide resistance) but that a significant proportion of the ungulate resistome appears to have natural origins.

Factors influencing usage of antimicrobial drugs among pastoralists in Kenya.

Agricultural use of antimicrobials in food animal production may contribute to the global emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). However, considerable gaps exist in research on the use of antimicrobial drugs (AMDs) in food animals in small-scale production systems in low- and middle-income countries, despite the minimal regulation of antimicrobials in such regions. The aim of this study was to identify factors that may influence AMD use in livestock among pastoral communities in Kenya. We collected data related to household and herd demographics, herd health, and herd management from 55 households in the Maasai Mara ecosystem, Kenya, between 2018 and 2019. We used multi-model logistic regression inference (supervised machine learning) to ascertain trends in AMD use within these households. AMD use in cattle was significantly associated with AMD use in sheep and goats (p = 0.05), implying that decisions regarding AMD use in cattle or sheep and goats were interdependent. AMD use in sheep and goats was negatively associated with vaccination against the foot and mouth disease (FMD) virus in cattle (OR = 0.06, 95% CI 0.01-0.67, p = 0.02). Less AMD use was observed for vaccine-preventable diseases like contagious ecthyma when households had access to state veterinarians (OR = 0.06, p = 0.05, 95% CI 0.004-0.96). Overall, decisions to use AMDs were associated with vaccine usage, occurrence of respiratory diseases, and access to animal health advice. This hypothesis-generating study suggests that applying community-centric methods may be necessary to understand the use of AMDs in pastoral communities.

Antimicrobial resistance dissemination associated with intensive animal production practices in Argentina: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Abuse and misuse of antimicrobial agents has accelerated the spread of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria. The association between antimicrobial-resistant infections in humans and antimicrobial use in agriculture is complex, but well-documented. This study provides a systematic review and meta-analysis of the dissemination of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) to antimicrobials defined as critically important by the WHO, in swine, chicken, and cattle from intensive and extensive production systems in Argentina. We conducted searches in electronic databases (MEDLINE-PubMed, Web of Science, SciELO, the National System of Digital Repositories from Argentina) as well as in the gray literature. Inclusion criteria were epidemiological studies on AMR in the main food-transmitted bacteria, Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli and Enterococcus spp., and mastitis-causing bacteria, isolated from swine, chicken, dairy and beef cattle from Argentina. This study gives evidence for supporting the hypothesis that AMR of common food-transmitted bacteria in Argentina is reaching alarming levels. Meta-analyses followed by subgroup analyses confirmed the association between the prevalence of AMR and (a) animal species (p<0.01) for streptomycin, ampicillin and tetracycline or (b) the animal production system (p<0.05) for streptomycin, cefotaxime, nalidixic acid, ampicillin and tetracycline. Moreover, swine (0.47 [0.29; 0.66]) and intensive production (0.62 [0.34; 0.83]) showed the highest pooled prevalence of multidrug resistance while dairy (0.056 [0.003; 0.524]) and extensive production (0.107 [0.043; 0.240]) showed the lowest. A research gap regarding beef-cattle from feedlot was identified. Finally, there is an urgent need for political measures meant to coordinate and harmonize AMR surveillance and regulate antimicrobial use in animal production.

Consumers' perceptions and willingness to purchase pork labelled ‘raised without antibiotics’

As a recent addition to the UK market, it is unknown how ‘raised without antibiotics’ labelled products are perceived or how they influence consumer food choice. Understanding consumers' perceptions towards the ‘raised without antibiotics’ label can determine knowledge of the label and what drives them to purchase products raised without antibiotics. Subsequently, using an online questionnaire with 1000 participants aged 18–92 years old, this study explored UK consumers' perceptions and willingness to buy ‘raised without antibiotics’ labelled pork, and examined their knowledge of antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance (AMR11Antimicrobial resistance.). Cross-sectional data were collected investigating consumer perceptions and willingness to purchase ‘raised without antibiotics’ labelled pork and hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted. Respondents had high levels of knowledge towards EU regulations however, their awareness of AMR was limited. Behavioural beliefs concerning animal welfare and product quality were the main predictors of consumers' willingness to buy ‘raised without antibiotics’ labelled pork, followed by pork purchasing habits based on animal welfare qualities. Additionally, consumers who were more concerned that AMR would personally affect them, as well as those who favoured antimicrobial use for the preservation of animal welfare were willing to buy this product. Perceptions towards animal antimicrobial use acceptance, beliefs that ‘raised without antibiotics’ labelled pork is expensive, and a lack of consideration for extrinsic qualities when purchasing pork i.e., appearance, had a negative influence on willingness to buy. Moderate perceptions towards ‘raised without antibiotics’ labelled pork, lack of knowledge of agricultural antimicrobial use, and the subsequent confusion surrounding this label suggests that it is necessary to explore other labelling options to provide consumers with the information they desire while also safeguarding animal welfare.

Antimicrobial use in agriculture: critical review of the factors influencing behaviour.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global health emergency affecting humans and animals, diminishing the effectiveness of medication used to treat illness. The agri-food sector has attracted increased attention for imprudent antimicrobial use (AMU) and its contribution to AMR. Thus, ascertaining farmers’ and veterinarians’ behaviours surrounding AMU is essential to address imprudent AMU and generate behaviour change within the agri-food sector. Therefore, the aim of this critical review is to investigate, assess and collate the current body of evidence to identify psychosocial factors including knowledge, understanding, perceptions, attitudes and behaviours surrounding AMU. Database searches were limited to articles utilizing qualitative and quantitative methodologies, available in English with no restriction on publication year. Of the 1156 articles identified, 103 were retained for this review. Findings on the psychosocial aspects were thematically analysed. Five key themes emerged from the data: (i) knowledge and awareness of antimicrobials; (ii) attitudes towards antimicrobials; (iii) influential relationships; (iv) resources; and (v) factors influencing AMU. Results indicated that to overcome barriers experienced by key stakeholders, a carefully considered, evidence-based approach, incorporating behaviour change theory, is required when designing intricate interventions/strategies, in order to elicit successful and sustained AMU behaviour change.

Antimicrobial Use and Resistance in Agriculture and Food Production Systems in Africa: A Systematic Review.

In Africa, there is dearth of information on antimicrobial use (AMU) in agriculture and food production systems and its consequential resistance in pathogens that affect animal, human and environmental health. Data published between 1980 and 2021 on the magnitude of AMU and AMR in agriculture and food productions systems in Africa were reviewed. Data from 13–27 countries in Africa indicate that 3558–4279 tonnes of antimicrobials were used in animals from 2015 to 2019. Tetracyclines and polypeptides contributed the largest proportion of antimicrobials used. Cattle and poultry production account for the largest consumption of antimicrobials in Africa. Although limited studies have reported AMR in crops, fish and beekeeping, AMR from a variety of farm animals has been substantially documented in Africa. Some countries in Africa have developed policies/plans to address AMU and AMR in agriculture and food production systems; however, their enforcement is challenged by weak regulations. In conclusion, although there is limited information on the quantities of antimicrobials used in agriculture and food production system, the levels of AMR are high. There is a need to strengthen regulatory authorities with a capacity to monitor AMU in agriculture and food production systems in Africa.

Antimicrobial drug usage pattern in poultry farms in Nigeria: implications for food safety, public health and poultry disease management.

Good antimicrobial drug stewardship in food‑producing animals boosts productivity and limits transmission of zoonotic pathogens, but the imprudent usage is counterproductive. A nation‑wide survey to determine the pattern of antimicrobial drug usage in poultry was therefore conducted across 12 of the 36 States in Nigeria. The survey was conducted using structured questionnaire designed to elicit information on socio‑demographics, pattern of antimicrobial drug usage and awareness of the consequences of imprudent use of antimicrobials in food‑producing animals, among 2,402 randomly selected poultry farmers. Critically important antimicrobials, belonging to the WHO's lists of 'Highest' and 'High' priority antibiotics, were administered sub‑therapeutically for prophylaxis and growth enhancement purposes. Many diseases that warranted the antimicrobial administration were of viral etiology. Only 64.2% of the farmers administered the drug based on veterinary doctors' prescription. Majority (62.3%) of the farmers did not observe recommended withdrawal period after the drug administration. Awareness of the respondents on consequences of non‑prudent agricultural use of antimicrobials was generally poor. There is need for enlightenment of the farmers on the benefits of prudent agricultural use of antimicrobials. Immediate discontinuation of sale of essential antimicrobials as over‑the‑counter drugs is imperative to safeguard their therapeutic efficacy and curtail spread of antimicrobial‑resistance organisms.

Designing a National Veterinary Prescribing Champion Programme for Welsh Veterinary Practices: The Arwain Vet Cymru Project.

Antimicrobial use in agriculture has been identified as an area of focus for reducing overall antimicrobial use and improving stewardship. In this paper, we outline the design of a complex antimicrobial stewardship (AMS) intervention aimed at developing a national Veterinary Prescribing Champion programme for Welsh farm animal veterinary practices. We describe the process by which participants were encouraged to design and deliver bespoke individualised AMS activities at practice level by forging participant “champion” identities and communities of practice through participatory and educational online activities. We describe the key phases identified as important when designing this complex intervention, namely (i) involving key collaborators in government and industry to stimulate project engagement; (ii) grounding the design in the literature, the results of stakeholder engagement, expert panel input, and veterinary clinician feedback to promote contextual relevance and appropriateness; and (iii) taking a theoretical approach to implementing intervention design to foster critical psychological needs for participant motivation and scheme involvement. With recruitment of over 80% of all farm animal practices in Wales to the programme, we also describe demographic data of the participating Welsh Veterinary Prescribing Champions in order to inform recruitment and design of future AMS programmes.

Measuring antimicrobial use on dairy farms: A method comparison cohort study

Antimicrobial use on UK dairy farms is measured for surveillance purposes, with veterinary sales data as a proxy for use. Two other methods of recording use have been used commonly on-farm: medicine waste bins and farm medicine records. However, none of these methods has been validated to measure antimicrobial use. The objective of this research was to assess agreement between the 3 most common methods for measuring on-farm antimicrobial use with a predetermined reference method on UK dairy farms. Antimicrobial use was measured prospectively on 26 UK dairy farms using medicine waste bins into which participants placed all discarded medicine packaging for a 12-mo period. At the end of 12 mo, farm medicine records and veterinary sales data were obtained retrospectively for participating farms. The reference method used was based on pre- and poststudy inventories combined with veterinary sales data. We investigated the systematic difference between the mean on-farm antimicrobial use measured by each of the 3 methods and a reference method, using one-way repeated-measures ANOVA models. Reliability and clinical relevance of the agreement between each pair of methods was quantified using the concordance correlation coefficient (CCC) and the Bland-Altman method, respectively. When compared with the reference method, veterinary sales data had excellent reliability for injectable antimicrobials and intramammary antimicrobials [95% confidence interval (CI) of CCC > 0.90] and moderate to excellent reliability for other antimicrobials (95% CI of CCC: 0.68-0.97). Medicine waste bins had good to excellent reliability for injectable (95% CI of CCC: 0.84-0.99), and intramammary products (95% CI of CCC: 0.78-0.94) and no agreement for other forms of antimicrobial. Farm medicine records did not agree for any form of antimicrobial when compared with the reference method. The use of veterinary sales data as a proxy for on-farm antimicrobial use in the UK represented excellent statistical reliability and offered clinically good agreement with the reference method when used to measure injectable antimicrobials. This study applies to the UK context and included a relatively small number of farms. However, these results have research and policy implications, both nationally and internationally, and are essential in accurately quantifying agricultural antimicrobial use to inform both animal and human health.

High Prevalence of Antibiotic Resistant Escherichia coli Serotype O157: H7 among Pastoral Communities in Rural Uganda

Background: Non-prescribed use of antimicrobials in Agriculture incurs a transfer risk of resistant pathogens to humans, complicating treatment. The aim of this study was to determine the potential of Zoonotic E. coli to serve as drivers of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) among animals and humans in pastoralist communities in Kasese district, so as to protect the community.&#x0D; Materials and Methods: A laboratory based cross-sectional study was done using archived E. coli isolates previously obtained from humans in pastoralist communities of Kasese district, Uganda. Recovery of the isolates was done by conventional culture, and Identification by biochemical methods, serotyping and PCR. Kirby Bauer disc diffusion method was adopted for AMR profiling. Isolates were screened for resistance mechanisms including Extended Spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL), Carbapenemases and AmpC production using disc diffusion based methods.&#x0D; Results: The prevalence of Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) was 16% (28/180). These EHEC isolates belonged to phylogroups; B1 (94%, 26/28), B2 (3%, 1/28) and A (3%, 1/28). All the 28 EHEC isolates possessed the virulence gene stx1, 26 of the 28 EHEC isolates contained the virulence gene stx2e, but none of the 28 possessed the virulence gene stx2. Highest resistance was seen to Cotrimoxazole (89%, 25/28), Tetracycline (71%, 20/28), Ampicillin (65%, 18/28) and Nitrofurantoin (28%, 8/28), these are the most commonly used antimicrobials in the agricultural sector in Uganda. Minimal resistance was observed to the antimicrobials that are commonly used in human medicine especially β-lactams, β-lactam+inhibitors and Carbapenems. Of the 28 zoonotic E. coli isolates, 17%, (5/28) were ESBL positive and among these 1 (3%, 1/28) was a Carbapenemase producer.&#x0D; Conclusion: There is a high prevalence of highly pathogenic, drug resistant E. coli O157:H7 among humans in pastoralist communities in Uganda. We suspect that these were acquired from animals because they mostly contained vero toxin gene vt2e which is animal specific, predominantly swine. Also majority of these EHEC isolates belonged to phylo-group B1 which has been documented to inhabit domestic animals. We recommend future studies to investigate relatedness of drug resistant isolates from humans and animals to ascertain the zoonotic spread of resistant enterohemorrhagic E. coli in pastoralist communities.

Antimicrobial Resistant Salmonella enterica Typhimurium Colonizing Chickens: The Impact of Plasmids, Genotype, Bacterial Communities, and Antibiotic Administration on Resistance

The rise in Salmonella resistance to cephalosporins and fluoroquinolones has become a significant threat to public health. At issue, is whether agricultural use of antimicrobials is driving emergent antibiotic resistance in Salmonella and the degree to which large antimicrobial resistance gene reservoirs, present in animal manures, drive the emergence of resistance. Two in vivo studies were performed to address these questions. In the first study, chickens were administered Salmonella and commensals, including an Escherichia coli strain with a mobile, ceftiofur-resistance plasmid, in order to determine how antibiotic administration impacted resistance in E. coli and Salmonella. All antibiotic treatments increased streptomycin resistance in E. coli. However, only ceftiofur administration increased resistance in Salmonella and specifically to extended-spectrum -lactams and cephalosporins (ESBL). There was no significant increase in emergence of ESBL-resistant Salmonella in chickens administered a ceftiofur-resistance plasmid donor. In the second study, chickens were administered two different isolates of S. enterica Typhimurium and a resistant cecal microbiome to serve as a gene donor. Birds were subsequently administered chlortetracycline or streptomycin. Antimicrobial administration significantly altered aminoglycoside and tetracycline resistance in the Enterobacteriaceae population. However, there was no significant increase in antimicrobial resistant Salmonella. Administration of a resistant microbiome had no significant impact on prevalence of resistance in Enterobacteriaceae populations, including Salmonella. Evident, from both studies, was that these treatments had minimal effect on increasing the prevalence of resistance in Salmonella, suggesting that other factors such as vertical transmission may be more important in dissemination of antimicrobial resistant Salmonella in chickens.

Global resistance to antimicrobials and their sustainable use in agriculture

Global resistance to antimicrobials and their sustainable use in agriculture

Microbial Resistance Due to the Use of Antimicrobials in Livestock and Agriculture

Antimicrobials are widely used in agriculture and livestock, nevertheless their large-scale and indiscriminate use contributes considerably to the development of microbial resistance. The intense commercialization of agricultural products accelerates the dissemination of pathogens that present resistance profiles, which characterize them as extremely harmful to plants and animals. Thus, there is an urgent need to control the use of antimicrobials in animal and vegetable food products in order to find new agents that are less able to develop resistance. It is essential the guidance of the professionals and the population about the rational use of antimicrobials in agriculture and livestock for the maintenance and protection of the human healthy and environment.

The 2017 Garrod Lecture: Genes, guts and globalization.

The widespread use of antibacterial drugs over the last 70 years has brought immense benefits to human health at the price of increasing drug inefficacy. Antibacterial agents have a strong selective effect in both favouring resistant strains and allowing particular species and families of bacteria to prosper, especially in the healthcare setting. Whilst important Gram-positive bacterial pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae caused concern over the last 20 years because of the spread of antibiotic-resistant strains, Enterobacteriaceae have become the biggest challenge. They have very efficient mechanisms for genetic exchange, as illustrated by the emergence and rapid spread of CTX-M β-lactamases and the carbapenemases. The unique epidemiology of Enterobacteriaceae, with substantial numbers colonizing the mammalian gut and subsequent release into and spread in the environment, presents a significant threat to human health because of the high levels of exposure for the whole community. The use of antimicrobials in agriculture combined with global movements of people, animals and food, arising from worldwide industrialization, generates a diversity and level of resistance not seen previously. Control will require globally coordinated interventions similar to those needed to ameliorate climate change.

The Prevalence of Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase-Producing Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia Coli in Poultry Chickens and Variation According to Farming Practices in Punjab, India.

Background:Agricultural use of antimicrobials in subtherapeutic concentrations is increasing in response to the rising demand for food animal products worldwide. In India, the use of antimicrobials in food animal production is unregulated. Research suggests that many clinically important antimicrobials are used indiscriminately. This is the largest study to date in India that surveys poultry production to test for antimicrobial resistance and the occurrence of extended-spectrum (ESBLs) modulated by farming and managerial practices.Objectives:Our goal was to survey poultry production for resistance to eleven clinically relevant antimicrobials and phenotypic occurrence of ESBLs as modulated by farming and managerial practices.Methods:Eighteen poultry farms from Punjab were surveyed, and 1,556 Escherichia coli isolates from 530 birds were tested for susceptibility to 11 antimicrobials using the disk diffusion method and validated using VITEK 2 (bioMérieux, Marcy-L’Étoile, France). Samples from 510 of these birds were phenotypically tested for ESBL production using the combination disk method and confirmed using VITEK 2. Generalized linear mixed models were used to infer differences in resistance profiles associated with different farming practices and facility types.Results:Resistance profiles were significantly different between broiler and layer farms. Broiler farms were 2.2 [ampicillin (AMP), ] to 23 [nalidixic acid (NX), ] times more likely to harbor resistant E. coli strains than layer farms. Adjusting for farm type (broiler vs. layer), the odds of resistance (although not statistically significant) to all antimicrobials except nitrofurantoin (NIT) were higher in independent facilities (IUs) as compared to contracted facilities (CFs). Increased prevalence of multidrug resistance (MDR; 94% compared to 60% in layers), including prevalence of ESBL-producing strains (87% compared to 42% in layers), was observed in broiler farms.Conclusions:Our findings suggest that unregulated use of clinically relevant antimicrobials in Indian broiler and layer farms may contribute to the emergence of resistance and support the need to curb the nontherapeutic use of medically important antimicrobials in food animal production. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP292

Antimicrobial resistance in healthcare, agriculture and the environment: the biochemistry behind the headlines.

The crisis of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the most serious issues facing us today. The scale of the problem is illustrated by the recent commitment of Heads of State at the UN to coordinate efforts to curb the spread of AMR infections. In this review, we explore the biochemistry behind the headlines of a few stories that were recently published in the public media. We focus on examples from three different issues related to AMR: (i) hospital-acquired infections, (ii) the spread of resistance through animals and/or the environment and (iii) the role of antimicrobial soaps and other products containing disinfectants in the dissemination of AMR. Although these stories stem from three very different settings, the underlying message in all of them is the same: there is a direct relationship between the use of antimicrobials and the development of resistance. In addition, one type of antimicrobial could select for cross-resistance to another type and/or for multidrug resistance. Therefore, we argue the case for increased stewardship to not only cover clinical use of antibiotics, but also the use of antimicrobials in agriculture and stewardship of our crucially important biocides such as chlorhexidine.