Antimicrobial-resistant Microbes Research Articles

Evaluation of in-feed supplementation of formic acid and thymol as non-antibiotic growth promoters and assessing their effect on antimicrobial resistant E.coli isolated in Turkey.

With the rampant usage of antibiotics as growth promoters (AGPs) in poultry sector, there has been alarming concerns of antimicrobial resistant microbes such as Escherichia coli. Diversification of poultry farming due to consumer demand for safer products with higher protein content, turkey production is gaining popularity. Feed additives such as formic acid (FA) and thymol (TH) are effectively replacing AGPs due to their antimicrobial action. This directed the researchers to find alternatives to antibiotics such as thymol and formic acid because of their strong antimicrobial, anti-oxidative, digestive-stimulating properties. To assess the efficacy of FA and TH as growth promoters and their effect on the antimicrobial resistance (AMR) load, the current study (0-12 weeks) was conducted in CARI VIRAT turkey poults (n = 256; unsexed) those were randomly distributed into eight treatment groups: control(T1), AGP (T2), graded levels of FA (T3 to T5) @ 2.5, 5 and 7.5ml/kg and TH (T6 to T8) @ 120, 240 and 350mg/kg. Cloacal swab samples were collected at 0, 4th, 8th and 12th week interval and processed further for isolation, identification and assessment of resistance profile of E. coli. The final body weight, cumulative gain and FCR were significantly (p < 0.05) better for birds under supplementation. The Total plate count (TPC) and coliforms showcased a significant (p < 0.001) reduction in the FA and TH supplement groups as compared to control and AGP group. The resistance profile indicated E. coli isolates from AGP group with significantly (p < 0.001) highest resistivity against antibiotics (viz. chloramphenicol, tetracycline, nalidixic acid, chlortetracycline) while isolates from FA (T5) and TH (T8) groups were the least resistant. blaAmpC gene was significantly (p < 0.001) harbored in T2 isolates whereas least detected in T5 and T8. It was inferred that formic acid (7.5ml/kg) and thymol (360mg/kg) can effectively replace AGPs and lower AMR burden in poultry.

Emergence of plasmid-mediated high-level tigecycline resistance gene tet(X4) in Enterobacterales from retail aquatic products

The spread of antimicrobial-resistant microbes and genes in various foods poses a significant threat to public health. Of particular global concern is the plasmid-mediated tigecycline resistance gene tet(X4), which, while identified in various sources, has not hitherto been reported in aquatic products. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence and characterization of tigecycline-resistant strains from aquatic products. A total of 73 nonrepetitive seafood samples were purchased from 26 farmers’ markets to detect tigecycline-resistant strains. Of these, nine Escherichia coli strains (comprising two ST58, one ST195, ST10, ST48, ST88, ST877, ST1244, ST14462) and one Citrobacter meridianamericanus, recovered from nine (12.33 %, 9/73) seafood samples (fish, n = 7; shrimp, clam and crab, n = 1 respectively), were positive for the tet(X4). Notably, phylogenetic analysis showed that E. coli ST195, a common ST carrying tet(X4), has a close phylogenetic relationship (23∼48 SNPs) with 32 tet(X4)-harboring E. coli ST195 isolates (isolated from pigs, animal foods, vegetable, and humans) deposited in NCBI database. Additionally, E. coli ST58 was closely (2 SNPs) related to one tet(X4)-positive E. coli strain from retail vegetables documented in the NCBI database. Whole genome sequencing and bioinformatic analysis revealed that tet(X4) genes were located on IncX1 (7 E. coli) or hybrid plasmid IncFIA(HI1)/IncHI1B(R27)/IncHI1A (2 E.coli and one C. meridianamericanus). These plasmids displayed high homology with those of plasmids from other sources deposited in GenBank database. These findings underscore the role of epidemic clones and plasmids in driving the dissemination of tet(X4) gene within Enterobacterales of aquatic products origin. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of tet(X4)-positive Enterobacterales from aquatic products. The pervasive propagation of tet(X4) gene facilitated by epidemic plasmids and clones across food animals, food products, humans, and the environment presents a serious threat to public health.

How Combined Macrolide Nanomaterials are Effective Against Resistant Pathogens? A Comprehensive Review of the Literature.

Macrolide drugs are among the broad-spectrum antibiotics that are considered as "miracle drugs" against infectious diseases that lead to higher morbidity and mortality rates. Nevertheless, their effectiveness is currently at risk owing to the presence of devastating, antimicrobial-resistant microbes. In view of this challenge, nanotechnology-driven innovations are currently being anticipated for promising approaches to overcome antimicrobial resistance. Nowadays, various nanostructures are being developed for the delivery of antimicrobials to counter drug-resistant microbial strains through different mechanisms. Metallic nanoparticle-based delivery of macrolides, particularly using silver and gold nanoparticles (AgNPs & AuNPs), demonstrated a promising outcome with worthy stability, oxidation resistance, and biocompatibility. Similarly, macrolide-conjugated magnetic NPs resulted in an augmented antimicrobial activity and reduced bacterial cell viability against resistant microbes. Liposomal delivery of macrolides also showed favorable synergistic antimicrobial activities in vitro against resistant strains. Loading macrolide drugs into various polymeric nanomaterials resulted in an enhanced zone of inhibition. Intercalated nanomaterials also conveyed an outstanding macrolide delivery characteristic with efficient targeting and controlled drug release against infectious microbes. This review abridges several nano-based delivery approaches for macrolide drugs along with their recent achievements, challenges, and future perspectives.

Treatment of Superbug Infection through a Membrane‐Disruption and Immune‐Regulation Cascade Effect Based on Supramolecular Peptide Hydrogels

AbstractInfections from antimicrobial resistant pathogens have been considered as lethal threats to human health if antibiotic treatments become ineffective. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) show broad‐spectrum antimicrobial activity against resistant strains via a membrane disruptive mechanism without developing further resistance and are promising candidates to combat resistant microbes. However, currently developed small molecular AMPs are limited by weak antimicrobial efficacy and potential cytotoxicity. Herein, an antimicrobial AMP hydrogel based on supramolecular self‐assembly is developed. The hydrogel shows strong antimicrobial activity and high potency against antimicrobial resistant microbes. It also possesses high cytocompatibility and immunoregulative activity. The synergistic effects lead to its significant healing of the skin abscess disease induced by the methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. This study not only sheds light on the design strategies and immune‐related antimicrobial actions of supramolecular AMP hydrogels, but also advances the development of self‐assembly peptide platform to fight against antimicrobial resistant infections.

Knowledge of Antimicrobial Drug Resistance (AMR) Among Patients in a General Outpatient Clinic in Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC), Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria

Background: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is currently prevalent and has the potential to affect everyone, of any age, in any country. In humans, animals, and the environment, antimicrobial-resistant microbes are quickly emerging and spreading. This study aims to assess the knowledge of Antimicrobial Drug Resistance (AMR) among patients in a General Outpatient Clinic in Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC), Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria. Methods: This was a descriptive cross-sectional study among 400 clients in district hospital done in 2022. A multistage sampling technique was adopted for this study. Data was collected using self-administered structured questionnaire and analyzed and presented as tables, proportions, and percentages using the IBM SPSS 28 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) computer software (IBM SPSS Inc. 2021) Ethical approval was granted by Bingham University Teaching Hospital Ethical Research Committee, Jos, Plateau State. Results: The study revealed that the knowledge of antimicrobial resistance between male and female respondents. 8.5% of female respondents had good knowledge, 20.75% had fair knowledge while 27.75% had poor knowledge. Of all the male respondents, 8.5% had good knowledge, 13% had fair knowledge and 21.5% had poor knowledge. Summarily, only 68 (17.0%) of participants had good knowledge of antimicrobial resistance, 135 (33.75%) had fair knowledge of antimicrobial resistance, while 197 (49.25%) had poor knowledge of antimicrobial resistance. Test of association between knowledge of antimicrobial resistance and Sociodemographic showed that Marital Status (χ² (2, N=400) = 44.28, p &lt; 0.045), Education (χ² (2, N=400) = 123.80, p &lt; 0.001) and Age (χ² (2, N=400) = 112.95, p &lt; 0.001) were statistically significant. Conclusion: The Federal, State, and Local governments, health care providers, and community health workers should focus on increasing awareness of AMR risk factors through health campaigns and program that will aid behavioural change.

Multifunctional Derivatives of Spiropyrrolidine Tethered Indeno-Quinoxaline Heterocyclic Hybrids as Potent Antimicrobial, Antioxidant and Antidiabetic Agents: Design, Synthesis, In Vitro and In Silico Approaches.

To combat emerging antimicrobial-resistant microbes, there is an urgent need to develop new antimicrobials with better therapeutic profiles. For this, a series of 13 new spiropyrrolidine derivatives were designed, synthesized, characterized and evaluated for their in vitro antimicrobial, antioxidant and antidiabetic potential. Antimicrobial results revealed that the designed compounds displayed good activity against clinical isolated strains, with 5d being the most potent (MIC 3.95 mM against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923) compared to tetracycline (MIC 576.01 mM). The antioxidant activity was assessed by trapping DPPH, ABTS and FRAP assays. The results suggest remarkable antioxidant potential of all synthesized compounds, particularly 5c, exhibiting the strongest activity with IC50 of 3.26 ± 0.32 mM (DPPH), 7.03 ± 0.07 mM (ABTS) and 3.69 ± 0.72 mM (FRAP). Tested for their α-amylase inhibitory effect, the examined analogues display a variable degree of α-amylase activity with IC50 ranging between 0.55 ± 0.38 mM and 2.19 ± 0.23 mM compared to acarbose (IC50 1.19 ± 0.02 mM), with the most active compounds being 5d, followed by 5c and 5j, affording IC50 of 0.55 ± 0.38 mM, 0.92 ± 0.10 mM, and 0.95 ± 0.14 mM, respectively. Preliminary structure-activity relationships revealed the importance of such substituents in enhancing the activity. Furthermore, the ADME screening test was applied to optimize the physicochemical properties and determine their drug-like characteristics. Binding interactions and stability between ligands and active residues of the investigated enzymes were confirmed through molecular docking and dynamic simulation study. These findings provided guidance for further developing leading new spiropyrrolidine scaffolds with improved dual antimicrobial and antidiabetic activities.

Design, Synthesis, Docking Studies and Antimicrobial Activity of 5-Substituted 4-Phenyl-2-(Phenylamino) Thiophene-3-Carboxylic Acid Ethyl Esters

There is an urgent need to develop new anti-microbials with better therapeutic profiles to combat emerging antimicrobial-resistant microbes. To this end, a series of new 2,3,4,5-tetra substituted thiophene derivatives bearing various scaffolds at 5-position were synthesized and screened for their potential antibacterial and antifungal activities. The tested compounds demonstrated significant antibacterial activity against the Gram-positive strains than to Gram-negative strains. The observed zone fields were 12.3 − 19.5 and 12.7 − 29.8 mm against S. pneumonia and B. subtilis, respectively. The highest inhibition zones against the Gram-positive strains S. pneumoniae and B. were observed with compound 10. Similarly, in observing the activity against the Gram-negative bacterial strains, compound 7 (thiophene moiety coupled with pyridazine) was effective against both the Gram-negative bacterial strains (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli), giving zone of inhibitions of 18.2 and 15.6 mm, respectively. At the antibacterial activity profile of our blends, it is evident that compounds 7, 11 were potent against a broad range of bacterial strains. In addition, all tested compounds were very active against tested fungal strains. However, the thiophene derivative 4, which structurally extended with amide, exhibited notable antifungal activity in tested fungal strains (A. fumigates and S. racemosum) better than the reference drug Amphotericin B. Docking studies further supported our finding and provided the basis of linkages in terms of conventional hydrogen bonds and pi- bonding patterns. In summary, the present results lay the groundwork for developing lead compounds with improved antimicrobial activities.

Evaluation of antimicrobial compounds to inhibit growth of select Gram-positive pathogenic or antimicrobial resistant bacteria in air-exposed silage

Spoiled silages can harbor pathogenic and antimicrobial-resistant microbes. The potential of some antimicrobial additives to inhibit certain pathogenic and antimicrobial-resistant bacteria in air-exposed silage was measured using pure and mixed bacterial cultures. With pure cultures, laurate and monolaurin (5 mg·mL−1) caused decreases (P &lt; 0.05) of 4 to &gt;7 log10 colony-forming units (CFU)·mL−1 in Listeria monocytogenes and Enterococcus faecalis compared to controls. Ten-fold higher amounts of these inhibitors were needed to equivalently decrease staphylococci. 2-Nitropropanol (1 mg·mL−1) decreased (P &lt; 0.05) E. faecalis and L. monocytogenes 2.9–3.8 and 2.4–7.2 log10 CFU·mL−1 after 6 and 24 h incubations, respectively. In air-exposed whole-plant corn silage the inhibitors caused decreases, although not necessarily significant, of 0.7–2.2 log10 CFU·mL−1 in L. monocytogenes, staphylococci and culturable aerobes after 24 h incubation, with modest yet significant (P &lt; 0.05) inhibition (&lt;0.1–0.3 log10 CFU·mL−1) of yeasts and molds. Tests for carry-over effects against ruminal microbes revealed laurate, monolaurin, and 2-nitropropanol inhibited methanogenesis by &gt;50% (P &lt; 0.05) after 24 h incubation and inhibited L. monocytogenes and enterococci. The antimicrobial activities exhibited by these compounds may yield opportunities to optimize their use to rescue spoiled silages.

Antagonistic Effects of Lipids Against the Anti-Escherichia coli and Anti-Salmonella Activity of Thymol and Thymol-β-d-Glucopyranoside in Porcine Gut and Fecal Cultures In Vitro.

Strategies are sought to reduce the carriage and dissemination of zoonotic pathogens and antimicrobial-resistant microbes within food-producing animals and their production environment. Thymol (an essential oil) is a potent bactericide in vitro but in vivo efficacy has been inconsistent, largely due to its lipophilicity and absorption, which limits its passage and subsequent availability in the distal gastrointestinal tract. Conjugation of thymol to glucose to form thymol-β-d-glucopyranoside can decrease its absorption, but in vivo passage of effective concentrations to the lower gut remains suboptimal. Considering that contemporary swine diets often contain 5% or more added fat (to increase caloric density and reduce dustiness), we hypothesized that there may be sufficient residual fat in the distal intestinal tract to sequester free or conjugated thymol, thereby limiting the availability and subsequent effectiveness of this biocide. In support of this hypothesis, the anti-Salmonella Typhimurium effects of 6 mM free or conjugated thymol, expressed as log10-fold reductions of colony-forming units (CFU) ml−1, were diminished 90 and 58%, respectively, following 24-h in vitro anaerobic fecal incubation (at 39°C) with 3% added vegetable oil compared to reductions achieved during culture without added oil (6.1 log10 CFU ml−1). The antagonistic effect of vegetable oil and the bactericidal effect of free and conjugated thymol against Escherichia coli K88 tested similarly were diminished 86 and 84%, respectively, compared to reductions achieved in cultures incubated without added vegetable oil (5.7 log10 CFU ml−1). Inclusion of taurine (8 mg/ml), bile acids (0.6 mg/ml), or emulsifiers such as polyoxyethylene-40 stearate (0.2%), Tween 20, or Tween 80 (each at 1%) in the in vitro incubations had little effect on vegetable oil-caused inhibition of free or conjugated thymol. Based on these results, it seems reasonable to suspect that undigested lipid in the distal gut may limit the effectiveness of free or conjugated thymol. Accordingly, additional research is warranted to learn how to overcome obstacles diminishing bactericidal activity of free and conjugated thymol in the lower gastrointestinal tract of food-producing animals.

Phytochemicals: A Promising Weapon in the Arsenal against Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria.

The extensive usage of antibiotics and the rapid emergence of antimicrobial-resistant microbes (AMR) are becoming important global public health issues. Many solutions to these problems have been proposed, including developing alternative compounds with antimicrobial activities, managing existing antimicrobials, and rapidly detecting AMR pathogens. Among all of them, employing alternative compounds such as phytochemicals alone or in combination with other antibacterial agents appears to be both an effective and safe strategy for battling against these pathogens. The present review summarizes the scientific evidence on the biochemical, pharmacological, and clinical aspects of phytochemicals used to treat microbial pathogenesis. A wide range of commercial products are currently available on the market. Their well-documented clinical efficacy suggests that phytomedicines are valuable sources of new types of antimicrobial agents for future use. Innovative approaches and methodologies for identifying plant-derived products effective against AMR are also proposed in this review.

Veterinary antibiotics in soils: Environmental processes, ecotoxicity, and risk mitigation

<p indent=0mm>Concentrated animal feeding operations have long extensively used antibiotics to prevent and treat infectious animal diseases and promote the growth of farmed animals, which have resulted in discharges of large quantities of un-metabolized veterinary antibiotics into agricultural soils along with the land application of animal manure. These veterinary antibiotics in soils could exert a range of ecotoxicological effects and even induce the emergence and development of antimicrobial-resistant microbes and genes, which pose a potential threat to human health. This review provides a systematic overview of the transport and fate processes of antibiotics in the soil environment and the corresponding mechanism, their ecotoxicological effects on crops, soil fauna, and soil microorganisms, and the strategies that can be used to mitigate the risk of antimicrobial pollution and the related mechanism. The major environmental processes of antibiotics in soil, including adsorption/desorption, biodegradation, and abiotic degradation, all strongly depend on the soil’s physical and chemical properties (e.g., pH and organic matter content) and the chemical structures and properties of antibiotics (e.g., functional group and hydrophobicity). The ecotoxicological effects of veterinary antibiotics on crops, soil fauna, and soil microorganisms are mainly determined by their types and concentrations and the soil’s physical and chemical properties. Antibiotic degradation during manure composting and anaerobic digestion primarily occurs through biodegradation and hydrolysis. The antibiotics in manure can be effectively degraded by high-temperature pyrolysis. In addition, biochar and graphene-based composite materials can stabilize the antibiotics in soils through hydrogen bonding, surface complexation, electrostatic interaction, and ion exchange. Important questions that must be addressed and recommendations for future research are proposed herein based on the summary of the recent research progresses on soil pollution by antibiotics.

Infection Prevention and Control at Lira University Hospital, Uganda: More Needs to Be Done.

Globally, 5–15% of hospitalized patients acquire infections (often caused by antimicrobial-resistant microbes) due to inadequate infection prevention and control (IPC) measures. We used the World Health Organization’s (WHO) ‘Infection Prevention and Control Assessment Framework’ (IPCAF) tool to assess the IPC compliance at Lira University hospital (LUH), a teaching hospital in Uganda. We also characterized challenges in completing the tool. This was a hospital-based, cross-sectional study conducted in November 2020. The IPC focal person at LUH completed the WHO IPCAF tool. Responses were validated, scored, and interpreted per WHO guidelines. The overall IPC compliance score at LUH was 225/800 (28.5%), implying a basic IPC compliance level. There was no IPC committee, no IPC team, and no budgets. Training was rarely or never conducted. There was no surveillance system and no monitoring/audit of IPC activities. Bed capacity, water, electricity, and disposal of hospital waste were adequate. Disposables and personal protective equipment were not available in appropriate quantities. Major challenges in completing the IPCAF tool were related to the detailed questions requiring repeated consultation with other hospital stakeholders and the long time it took to complete the tool. IPC compliance at LUH was not optimal. The gaps identified need to be addressed urgently.

PSIX-18 Laurate and its glycerol monoester, monolaurin, as potential additives to control Listeria monocytogenes and tetracycline resistant Enterococcus faecalis in air-exposed silage

Abstract Silages can harbor pathogenic and antimicrobial resistant microbes which risk infection of food-producing animals. Livestock producers need effective yet environmentally friendly interventions to preserve the feed value of these fermented materials. Medium chain fatty acids such as laurate and its glycerol monoester, monolaurin, are potent inhibitors of many Gram-positive bacteria and when tested at 5 mg/mL in anaerobic cultures (n = 3/treatment) inoculated with 105 colony forming units (CFU) of Listeria monocytogenes and grown at 37oC in ½ strength Brain Heart infusion broth achieved near complete elimination of viable cells after 6 h compared to a 2.2 ± 0.1 log10 CFU/mL increase observed in controls. Culture of a tetracycline-resistant Enterococcus faecalis with 5 mg laurate/mL likewise achieved near complete elimination of viable cells (5 log10 CFU/mL) by 6 h incubation. The bactericidal effect of 5 mg monolaurin was less against E. faecalis, achieving a decrease of 1.8 ± 0.2 log10 CFU/mL and not decreased further after 24 h. When tested against air-exposed silage, pH 7.53 (4 g), mixed with 4 mL water, 5 mg laurate or monolaurin decreased viability of experimentally-inoculated L. monocytogenes (105 CFU/g silage) more (P &amp;lt; 0.05) than untreated controls after 24 h aerobic incubation (22oC), with viable counts being decreased 6.3 ± 0.1, 5.9 ± 0.8 and 4.5 ± 0.1 log10 CFU/g, respectively. In contrast, viable recovery of the experimentally-inoculated (105 CFU/g) tetracycline-resistant E. faecalis was reduced more (P &amp;lt; 0.05) than controls (decreased 0.7 ± 0.1 log10 CFU/g) after 6 h incubation when similarly tested with laurate and monolaurin (1.7 ± 0.5 and 3.0 ± 0.9 log10 CFU/g, respectively) but counts after 24 h were similar, decreasing on average 2.0 ± 0.5 log10 CFU/g). Results indicate laurate and monolaurin may be useful in killing L. monocytogenes and tetracycline-resistant E. faecalis during silage feed-out.

Self-medication and its Consequences during &amp;amp; after the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Pandemic: A Global Health Problem

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a respiratory tract infection that emerged from China in December 2019 and is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. Due to the airborne nature of its transmission, COVID-19 spread to the rest of the world rapidly. Thus, the World Health Organization declared COVID-19 a pandemic. This paper evaluated the factors that lead to self-medication in people suffering from respiratory tract infections such as COVID-19, and the consequences of practicing self-medication using antimicrobial agents. Most of the signs and symptoms of COVID-19 are also seen in infections such as malaria, flu, and the common cold. For this reason, and also due to poor healthcare-seeking behaviour, most people tend to self-medicate using medicines that are known to be effective against malaria, common cold, and COVID-19. Among the commonly used medicines in the practice of self-medication include antibacterials, antimalarials, and antivirals. Some vitamins such as vitamin C boost the immune system enabling it to provide effective defence mechanisms against microbes. However, self-medication may pose consequences such as the emergence of antimicrobial-resistant microorganisms, hypersensitivity reactions as well as dose-dependent toxicities viz dermatoxicity, cardiotoxicity, and hepatoxicity. Infectious diseases caused by antimicrobial-resistant microbes are difficult and, in some instances, impossible to treat thereby leading to increased morbidity and mortality among infected people. Consequently, antimicrobial resistance poses another global public health problem and requires a multisectoral approach to curb. It is our recommendation that all governments ensure that there are adequate medicines and efficient human resources in healthcare facilities as well as sufficient public awareness to prevent people from seeking self-medication.

Isolation of multidrug resistant bacterium in urban wildlife. What is in your backyard?

Animal and human interaction encourage zoonotic transmission of microbes resulting in colonization and risk for infectious disease. Studies of individuals working in agriculture show increased cases of Salmonella infection along with a higher colonization of antimicrobial resistant microbes. However risk from wildlife exposure is not fully understood. Alaska’s largest city, Anchorage, is home to approximately one thousand moose migrating into city parks and suburban backyards. Environmental impact of moose fecal contamination could prove to be a public health risk. From November 2018 through February 2019, we collected forty moose fecal samples surveying the Anchorage, Mat-Su Valley region. Utilizing standard microbial techniques isolated bacterium were identified, along with antimicrobial susceptibility testing, using MicroScan™ conventional panels. Colistin resistance on Escherichia coli and phenotypic evaluation for extended spectrum beta-lactamase enzyme in Enterobacteriacea were performed using disc diffusion. Multidrug resistant (MDR) organisms were isolated in 39% of moose fecal samples with 100% containing colistin resistant Escherichia coli. MDR gram negative bacilli identified included Acinetobacter baumanii/haemolyticus, Ewingella americana, Klebsiella ascorbate, Klebsiella ozaenae, Leminorella grimotti, and Pantoea agglomerans. Additionally, Klebsiella isolates expressed phenotypic extended spectrum beta-lactamase enzyme (ESBL). Antibiotic resistant gram positive organisms included methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and linezolid resistant, vancomycin resistant Enterococcus fecalis (VRE). Close proximity of moose in our urban Alaska environment draws attention to their commensal microbiome and potential for infectious transfer to humans. We discovered nearly 40% of moose fecal samples contained one or more multidrug resistant bacterium with several organisms currently identified as a healthcare risk including MRSA, VRE and ESBL producing Klebsiella species. Wildlife exposure to urban landscape, including antibiotic contaminated water, could provide an additional avenue for development of antimicrobial resistant organisms. Further study is indicated to determine potential public health risk of wildlife zoonotic transfer of existing and novel multidrug resistant bacteria.

Current status of countermeasures for infectious diseases and resistant microbes in the field of urology.

A worldwide increase in antimicrobial-resistant microbes due to the improper use of antimicrobial agents, along with a lack of progress in developing new antimicrobials, is becoming a societal problem. Although carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae, which are resistant to carbapenem antimicrobials, first appeared in 1993, treatment options remain limited. Mechanisms behind antimicrobial resistance involve changes to microbial outer membranes, drug efflux pump abnormalities, β-lactamase production and the creation of biofilms around cell bodies. Genetic information related to these forms of antimicrobial resistance exists on chromosomes and plasmids, and when located on the latter can easily be transmitted to other strains, no matter the species, which creates a risk of antimicrobial resistance spreading exceptionally rapidly. To prevent the spread of antimicrobial resistance, the World Health Organization in 2015 published an action plan on antimicrobial resistance, based on which World Health Organization member countries have laid out specific policies and targets. Urinary tract infections are a type of healthcare-associated infection, and the sexually transmitted disease pathogen, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, has been included in a list of microbes that pose a risk to human health published by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Urologists face numerous problems when attempting to use antimicrobials properly, which is one method of dealing with antimicrobial resistance. Therefore, this article describes the current state of resistant microbes associated with urinary tract infections and countermeasures for antimicrobial resistance, including new antimicrobials.

Genotypic Classification of Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus from Korean Slaughterhouses Using Semiautomated Repetitive Sequence-Based Polymerase Chain Reaction.

A repetitive sequence-based polymerase chain reaction (rep-PCR) technique utilizing a semiautomated system, namely DiversiLab, was applied to determine the genotypes of Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus obtained from slaughterhouses. Twenty-four S. aureus and 16 B. cereus isolates from pigs and Hanwoo cattle from three slaughterhouses were used to create a DNA fingerprint library with the system software. Scatterplots demonstrated that rep-PCR groupings of S. aureus isolates were in good agreement with their origins. Specifically, linked rep-PCR profiles were observed for S. aureus isolates recovered from the same slaughterhouse, and higher genetic similarities were found among strains isolated from adjacent regions. All S. aureus isolates except one (ID: A-Hanwoo-9) from slaughterhouse "A" clustered with the three S. aureus reference strains, Korea Culture Center of Microorganisms (KCCM) 41291, KCCM 12214, and Culture Collection of Antimicrobial Resistant Microbes (CCARM) 3A007 (similarity values >95%). Moreover, most isolates obtained from slaughterhouse "B" clustered with S. aureus KCCM 11335 and KCCM 41331, and two isolates from slaughterhouse "C" clustered with CCARM 0027. Therefore, for this species, genotypic characteristics of regional isolates can be used to track the pathway of contamination. In contrast, B. cereus isolates showed high genetic diversity and could not be clustered with any specific group. Collectively, this system is useful for analyzing genetic diversity and is a rapid and reproducible typing method; however, there is a need to develop rep-PCR libraries for its use as a rapid identification method.

Occurrence of Antibiotics and Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria in Landfill Sites in Kumasi, Ghana

The incidence of antimicrobial resistance among microbial communities is a major threat to global health care and security. Landfills, which are reservoirs for many pharmaceuticals, provide a conducive habitat for antimicrobial-resistant microbes and resistant gene transfer and are therefore a major contributor to the phenomenon of antimicrobial resistance. Hence, this study determined the levels of three widely used antibiotics, metronidazole, penicillin, and amoxicillin, and the occurrence of antimicrobial resistance amongst microbes in soil and leachate samples from active and abandoned landfill sites in Kumasi, Ghana. Soil samples were collected from one active and four abandoned landfills, while leachate specimen was collected only from the active landfill. Sonication and solid-phase extraction (SPE) were used for sample preparation, followed by analysis via an HPLC-PDA method. Isolation and characterization of bacteria were done using standard bacteriological techniques. Antibiotic susceptibility testing was determined following the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) guidelines. Antibiotics were detected at very high concentrations in the specimen collected from both active and abandoned landfill sites. For leachate samples obtained from Dompoase, penicillin was present at the highest concentration (67.42 ± 5.35 μg/mL, p&lt;0.05) followed by metronidazole (18.25 ± 7.92 μg/mL) and amoxicillin (10.96 ± 6.93 μg/mL). In general, the levels of antibiotics in soil samples were similar at both active and abandoned landfill sites. Nonetheless, as with leachates, penicillin levels were much higher (p&lt;0.05) than levels of amoxicillin and metronidazole within any particular site. When screened against some antibiotics, Enterobacteriaceae and some Bacillus and Listeria species isolated from the soil and leachate samples proved to be resistant. The high levels of antibiotics coupled with the presence of resistant microbes at these landfills sites call for immediate measures to halt the disposal of pharmaceuticals in the environment so as to avert any possible public health setback.

Biobased Sanitizer Delivery System for Improved Sanitation of Bacterial and Fungal Biofilms.

Biofilms can persist in food-processing environments because of their relatively higher tolerance and resistance to antimicrobials including sanitizers. In this study, a novel biobased sanitizer composition was developed to effectively target biofilms and deliver chlorine-based sanitizers to inactivate bacterial and fungal biofilms. The biobased composition was developed by encapsulating a chlorine-binding polymer in a biobased yeast cell wall particle (YCWP) microcarrier. This study demonstrates the high affinity of biobased compositions to bind target bacterial and fungal cells and inactivate 5 logs of model pathogenic bacteria and fungi in wash water without and with high organic load (chemical oxygen demand = 2000 mg/L) in 30 s and 5 min, respectively. For the sanitation of biofilms, this biobased sanitizer can inactivate 7 logs of pathogenic bacteria and 3 logs of fungi after 1 h treatment, whereas the 1 h treatment using conventional chlorine-based sanitizer can only achieve 2-3 log reduction for bacterial biofilms and 1-2 log reduction for fungal biofilms, respectively. The enhanced antimicrobial activity can be attributed to three factors: (a) localized high concentration of chlorine bound on the YCWPs; (b) high affinity of YCWPs to bind diverse microbes; and (c) improved stability in an organic-rich aqueous environment. In summary, these unique attributes of biobased carriers will significantly enhance the sanitation efficacy of biofilms, reduce the persistence and transmission of antimicrobial resistant microbes, limit the use of antimicrobial chemicals, and improve the cost-effectiveness of sanitizers.

Bacterial colonization and antimicrobial resistance genes in neonatal enteral feeding tubes.

Enteral feeding is a key component of care in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs); however, feeding tubes harbor microbes. These microbes have the potential to cause disease, yet their source remains controversial and clinical recommendations to reduce feeding tube colonization are lacking. This study aims to improve our understanding of the bacteria in neonatal feeding tubes and to evaluate factors that may affect these bacteria. 16S rRNA gene sequencing was used to characterize the bacteria present in pharyngeal, esophageal, and gastric portions of feeding tubes, residual fluid of the tubes, and infant stool using samples from 47 infants. Similar distributions of taxa were observed in all samples, although beta diversity differed by sample type. Feeding tube samples had lower alpha diversity than stool samples, and alpha diversity increased with gestational age, day of life, and tube dwell time. In a subset of samples from 6 infants analyzed by whole metagenome sequencing, there was greater overlap in transferable antimicrobial resistance genes between tube and fecal samples in breast milk fed infants than in formula fed infants. These findings develop our understanding of neonatal feeding tube colonization, laying a foundation for research into methods for minimizing NICU patients' exposure to antimicrobial resistant microbes.