Anticipatory Mechanisms Research Articles

Temporal mechanisms underlying visual processing bias in peri-hand space.

The immediate space surrounding the hands has often been termed the peri-hand space (PHS), and is characterized by a smaller reaction time (RT), better detection, and enhanced accuracy for stimuli presented in this space, relative to those stimuli presented beyond this space. Such behavioral changes have been explained in terms of a biased allocation of cognitive resources such as perception, attention, and memory, for the efficient processing of information presented in the PHS. However, in two experiments, the current study shows that these cognitive biases seem to have an underlying temporal basis. The first experiment requires participants to perform a temporal bisection task, whereas the second experiment requires them to perform a verbal estimation task when stimuli are presented either near the hands or relatively far. Results from both experiments give evidence for slowing down of temporal mechanisms in the PHS - reflected in the form of temporal dilation for stimuli presented in the PHS relative to those presented further away. The slowing down of time in the PHS seems crucial in giving sufficient temporal allowance for the allocation of cognitive resources to prioritize the processing of information in the PHS. The findings are in line with the early anticipatory mechanisms associated with the PHS and seem to be driven by the switch/gate mechanism, and not the pacemaker component of the attentional gate model of time perception. Thus, the current study tries to integrate the theories of time perception with the peripersonal space literature.

Peripersonal space: why so last-second?

A vast range of neurophysiological, neuropsychological and behavioural results in monkeys and humans have shown that the immediate surroundings of the body, also known as peripersonal space (PPS), are processed in a unique way. Three roles have been ascribed to PPS mechanisms: to react to threats, to avoid obstacles and to act on objects. However, in many circumstances, one does not wait for objects or agents to enter PPS to plan these behaviours. Typically, one has more chances to survive if one starts running away from the lion when one sees it in the distance than if it is a few steps away. PPS makes sense in shortsighted creatures but we are not such creatures. The crucial question is thus twofold: (i) why are these adaptive processes triggered only at the last second or even milliseconds? And (ii) what is their exact contribution, especially for defensive and navigational behaviours? Here, we propose that PPS mechanisms correspond to a plan B, useful in unpredictable situations or when other anticipatory mechanisms have failed. Furthermore, we argue that there are energetic, cognitive and behavioural costs to PPS mechanisms, which explain why this plan B is triggered only at the last second. This article is part of the theme issue 'Minds in movement: embodied cognition in the age of artificial intelligence'.

Circadian Rhythms in Cardiovascular Metabolism.

Energetic demand and nutrient supply fluctuate as a function of time-of-day, in alignment with sleep-wake and fasting-feeding cycles. These daily rhythms are mirrored by 24-hour oscillations in numerous cardiovascular functional parameters, including blood pressure, heart rate, and myocardial contractility. It is, therefore, not surprising that metabolic processes also fluctuate over the course of the day, to ensure temporal needs for ATP, building blocks, and metabolism-based signaling molecules are met. What has become increasingly clear is that in addition to classic signal-response coupling (termed reactionary mechanisms), cardiovascular-relevant cells use autonomous circadian clocks to temporally orchestrate metabolic pathways in preparation for predicted stimuli/stresses (termed anticipatory mechanisms). Here, we review current knowledge regarding circadian regulation of metabolism, how metabolic rhythms are synchronized with cardiovascular function, and whether circadian misalignment/disruption of metabolic processes contribute toward the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease.

SACIEDADE PRÉ-ABSORTIVA: RELEVÂNCIA DOS MECANISMOS ANTECIPATÓRIOS PARA A ASSISTÊNCIA AO PACIENTE COM SEDE

ABSTRACT Objective: to understand the physiological aspects involved in pre-absorptive thirst satiety based on advances in neurophysiology and their applicability to healthcare. Method: this is a reflective study that compiles physiological phenomena related to the form of satiety, describing the neurophysiological pathway for pre-absorptive thirst satiety. Results: the anticipatory mechanisms involved in thirst inhibition are related to thermoreceptors, osmoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, gastric and cognitive mechanisms. The use of cold temperature is key to pre-absorptive satiety, as its stimuli are transmitted to the cortical and limbic regions, providing a sensation of pleasantness, gratification and pleasure. In this way, individuals reach pre-absorptive thirst satiety in a few minutes. Conclusion: liquid or solid contents at a cold temperature help to achieve pre-absorptive thirst satiety, as they activate mechanisms that anticipate intake inhibition. This innovative path should be used intentionally for patients who experience prolonged water restriction, as they do not depend on the absorption of liquids by the gastrointestinal tract.

Hierarchical Organization and Adjustment of Force Coordination in Response to Self-Triggered and External-Triggered Cues in Simulated Archery Performance.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the hierarchical organization of digit force production and its effect on stability and performance during the simulated archery task. The simulated archery shooting task required the production of a prescribed level of force in virtual space with the left hand and an equivalent force with all 4 fingers of right hand. A single trial had 2 phases, including static force production as aiming in archery and quick force release to shoot the virtual arrow. The timing of the force release was determined by the participant's choice or response to the external cue. The coordination indices, that is, the synergy index, of force stabilization were quantified in 2 hierarchies by decomposing the variance components. The accuracy and precision of the hit position of the virtual arrow were calculated as performance-related indices. The results confirmed that the precision, that is, reproducibility, of the performance was greater when the force release time was determined by the self-selected time, suggesting the beneficial effect of the anticipatory mechanism. There was a distinct synergistic organization of digit forces for the stabilization of net forces in both bimanual and multifinger levels, which was especially correlated with the precision of performance.

Trial-by-trial fluctuations of pre-stimulus alpha power predict language ERPs.

Anticipatory mechanisms are known to play a key role in language, but they have been mostly investigated with violation paradigms, which only consider what happens after predictions have been (dis)confirmed. Relatively few studies focused on the pre-stimulus interval and found that stronger expectations are associated with lower pre-stimulus alpha power. However, alpha power also fluctuates spontaneously, in the absence of experimental manipulations; and in the attention and perception domains, spontaneously low pre-stimulus power is associated with better behavioral performance and with event-related potential (ERPs) with shorter latencies and higher amplitudes. Importantly, little is known about the role of alpha fluctuations in other domains, as it is in language. To this aim, we investigated whether spontaneous fluctuations in pre-stimulus alpha power modulate language-related ERPs in a semantic congruence task. Electrophysiology data were analyzed using Generalized Additive Mixed Models to model nonlinear interactions between pre-stimulus alpha power and EEG amplitude, at the single-trial level. We found that the N400 and the late posterior positivity/P600 were larger in the case of lower pre-stimulus alpha power. Still, while the N400 was observable regardless of the level of pre-stimulus power, a late posterior positivity/P600 effect was only observable for low pre-stimulus alpha power. We discuss these findings in light of the different, albeit connected, functional interpretations of pre-stimulus alpha and the ERPs according to both a nonpredictive interpretation focused on attentional mechanisms and under a predictive processing framework.

Temporal Factors Associated With Visual Processing Bias in Peripersonal Space

The immediate space surrounding the body, reachable to the hands, is referred to as the Peripersonal Space (PPS). The PPS is characterized by anticipatory mechanisms to perform efficient goal-oriented or defensive actions towards objects in the environment on-time. Previous studies have shown visuo-spatial processing bias for stimuli presented in the PPS, reported in the form of faster Reaction Time, better Accuracy and enhanced Visual Sensitivity. However, recent studies show that the PPS-related effects are sensitive to temporal factors associated with the early anticipatory mechanisms in the PPS. The current manuscript highlights the temporal mechanisms underlying the PPS-related visual processing bias. Specifically, the PPS effect is conceptualized as comprising of an early anticipatory component that gives temporal allowance for the manifestation of a late component. The early component accommodates the previous studies that have explained the PPS effects to be perceptual in nature, whereas the late component accommodates the previous studies that have explained the PPS effects to be attentional in nature. To the best of our knowledge, no previous attempts have been made to conceptualize the PPS effects in terms of its time-separable components. The current conceptualization of the PPS-related effects seems more wholistic vis-à-vis the previous explanation that the effect is either perceptual or attentional in nature. Also, the current manuscript attempts to make theoretical integration between Time Perception and Peripersonal Space literature.

Surgeon estimation of retropubic trocar position in blind 3D space.

Retropubic midurethral sling surgery involves the blind passage of trocars near vital organs. We quantified the proximity of surgeons' mental representation of trocar position relative to actual position using a pelvis simulation platform. We hypothesized that novice surgeons, compared with experts, would estimate the trocar's location to be further from the actual location. Novice and expert surgeons performed bilateral retropubic trocar passes of a Gynecare TVT trocar (#810041B-#810,051) on the simulation platform. We measured the trocar tip's position using a motion capture system, and recorded vocalizations when they perceived contacting the bone and crossing three landmark-oriented planes. We calculated differences (∆Bone, ∆Turn, ∆Top, ∆Pop) between vocalization times and when the trocar crossed the corresponding plane. We performed Mann-Whitney and Chi-squared tests to investigate differences between novices and experts and Levene's test to assess equality of variances for subject-level variation. A total of 34 trials, including 22 expert and 12 novice trials, were performed by six participants. ∆Bone was significantly smaller among novice surgeons (1.27 vs 2.81s, p=0.013). There were no significant differences in the remaining three deltas or in vocalizing early versus late. Levene's test revealed no significant differences in within-subject variability for any of the four deltas. Novices passed the trocar anterior to the pubic bone on three passes. Novices were similar to expert surgeons in their estimation of the trocar's location and may have relied more heavily on anticipatory mechanisms to compensate for lack of experience. Teaching surgeons should make sure the novice surgeon trocar pass starts posterior to the bone.

Effects of short-term hand immobilization on anticipatory mechanism for tool use.

The short-term immobilization of a limb such as the right arm can impair sensorimotor mechanisms, which in turn reduces motor control of this arm. However, it is not known whether immobilization also impairs the anticipatory mechanism for tool use without actual enactment. In two experiments, we asked participants to judge how they would use a tool in a particular environment (e.g., "Take the pencil to write on a sheet of paper"). Prior to this tool-use judgment task, some participants had been immobilized (right arm) for 24h. Results revealed that compared to controls, immobilized participants performed more poorly on the tool-use judgment task (accuracy and response time) as well as in a manual dexterity task. As our tool-use judgment task involved anticipating the expected perceptual effect of using a tool to achieve an environmental goal (e.g., writing on a sheet of paper), our data are discussed in line with theories of motor control (e.g., ideomotor theory) that emphasize the expected perceptual consequences of the action.

In the World Republic of Letters: Towards a Reconceptualisation of the Notion of Weltliteratur

The paper problematises the origins, characteristics, and implications of the term Weltliteratur, proffering critical insights into its interdisciplinary, transnational character and presuppositions about its discontinuous development. Having been initially conceptualised as a heretofore undeveloped research area, the domain of “world literature” is first eulogised as worthy of further scholarly attention by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in the late 1820s – the time of political unrest and multiple socio-cultural changes. As such, the idea also seems to have been of paramount interest to the ancients (H. M. Posnett), in which sense it may be portrayed as borderline anachronistic. Conversely, it does possess and evoke great resonance in future writers, thinkers, and intellectuals alike, resulting in its many reconceptualisations, not only in the field of literary studies but also in numerous nascent or still-developing disciplines such as comparative literature, genology, translation criticism, hermeneutics, cultural studies; furthermore, it is equally relevant for a number of various thematic poetics. Engaging in a dialogue with Reinhart Koselleck’s “conceptual history” alongside its highly idiosyncratic theoretical apparatus, the present paper adapts and reappropriates Koselleck’s nomenclature with a view towards a preliminary systematisation of anticipatory mechanisms which influenced the reception of the category of Weltliteratur as much as they governed its subsequent re-development, be it in academia or in twentieth- and twenty-first-century public discourse. In this sense, Goethe’s prescient analysis of various national literatures as well as of the heterogeneity of artistic discourses of his time may be said to have laid the foundations for new comparative research methodologies, and, by extension, to what Pascale Casanova would eventually name as “the world republic of letters.”

A non-canonical retina-ipRGCs-SCN-PVT visual pathway for mediating contagious itch behavior.

SUMMARYContagious itch behavior informs conspecifics of adverse environment and is crucial for the survival of social animals. Gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) and its receptor (GRPR) in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus mediates contagious itch behavior in mice. Here, we show that intrinsically photosensitive retina ganglion cells (ipRGCs) convey visual itch information, independently of melanopsin, from the retina to GRP neurons via PACAP-PAC1R signaling. Moreover, GRPR neurons relay itch information to the paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus (PVT). Surprisingly, neither the visual cortex nor superior colliculus is involved in contagious itch. In vivo calcium imaging and extracellular recordings reveal contagious itch-specific neural dynamics of GRPR neurons. Thus, we propose that the retina-ipRGC-SCN-PVT pathway constitutes a previously unknown visual pathway that probably evolved for motion vision that encodes salient environmental cues and enables animals to imitate behaviors of conspecifics as an anticipatory mechanism to cope with adverse conditions.

Mutual beta power modulation in dyadic entrainment

Across a broad spectrum of interactions, humans exhibit a prominent tendency to synchronize their movements with one another. Traditionally, this phenomenon has been explained from the perspectives of predictive coding or dynamical systems theory. While these theories diverge with respect to whether individuals hold internal models of each other, they both assume a predictive or anticipatory mechanism enabling rhythmic interactions. However, the neural bases underpinning interpersonal synchronization are still a subject under active investigation. Here we provide evidence that the brain relies on a common oscillatory mechanism to pace self-generated rhythmic movements and to track the movements produced by a partner. By performing dual-electroencephalography recordings during a joint finger-tapping task, we identified an oscillatory component in the beta range (∼ 20 Hz), which was significantly modulated by both self-generated and other-generated movement. In conditions where the partners perceived each other, we observed periodic fluctuations of beta power as a function of the reciprocal movement cycles. Crucially, this modulation occurred both in visually and in auditorily coupled conditions, and was accompanied by recurrent periods of dyadic synchronized behavior. Our results show that periodic beta power modulations may be a critical mechanism underlying interpersonal synchronization, possibly enabling mutual predictions between coupled individuals, leading to co-regulation of timing and overt mutual adaptation. Our findings thus provide a potential bridge between influential theories attempting to explain interpersonal coordination, and a concrete connection to its neurophysiological bases.

Movement Patterns of Polish National Paralympic Team Wheelchair Fencers with Regard To Muscle Activity and Co-Activation Time.

The aim of this study was to determine muscle co-activation and muscle activity time using EMG in Paralympic wheelchair fencers categorized into two disability-level groups: A (n= 7) and B (n= 9). The study was carried out with the use of a 16-channel EMG system. The surface EMG electrodes were placed on the fencer’s body along nine channels: arm muscles - deltoideus middle head (DEL), triceps brachii (TRI) and biceps brachii (BC); forearm muscles - extensor carpi radialis longus (ECR), flexor carpi radialis (FCR); postural (abdominal and back) muscles - the right and the left external oblique abdominal (EOA RT and LT) and latissimus dorsi (LD RT and LT). To assess the relative level of co-activation (simultaneous contraction of both muscles) for the TRI-BC, ECR-FCR, LD RT-EDA RT and LD LT-EDA LT muscle pairs, the co-activation index (CI) was calculated. The collected data were processed using Jamovi. The study hypotheses were verified at the level of significance of p≤0.05 (Welch’s t-test). The normal distribution of analyzed statistical features was checked with the Shapiro-Wilk test. The analysis of muscle activation time, as a percent ratio of three attempts executed in a series, confirmed the study assumptions. Fencers from Group A had a shorter activation time in all tested muscles, with the exception of the ECR (58.24), than fencers from Group B. This confirms that the activation of antagonist muscles representing a centrally programmed anticipatory mechanism stabilizing technical actions was particularly intensified in Group A fencers. The study results indicate that the standard co-activation index (CI) of key muscles involved in wheelchair fencing ranges from 48 to 51%.

Implementasi Kebijakan Mitigasi Dan Kesiapsigaan Bencana Pada Badan Penanggulangan Bencana Daerah Kabupaten Bima

The aim of this research is to determine the implementation of mitigation and preparedness policies regarding disaster management in the Bima Regency area. This study used descriptive qualitative method. The location of this research is at the Regional Disaster Management Agency (BPBD) Bima Regency Office. Data collection techniques consist of observation, interviews and documentation. The research results show that regional capacity level data in disaster management shows that aspects of community preparedness through PODES data and in-depth interviews with office holders at the sub-district level are still very weak. That due to the weak regional capacity index in efforts to reduce disaster risk, the level of preparedness for various types of disasters in the community is also low, automatically the level of risk that will occur in the community is very vulnerable. Community preparedness policies have not yet become a priority activity. However, in strengthening preparedness, the Regional Government of Bima Regency has implemented institutional technical capacity policies as well as strong disaster emergency management mechanisms with a disaster risk reduction perspective. The Bima Regency Government is also exploring ready disaster contingency plans at all levels of Government, holding regular exercises to test and develop disaster emergency response programs. And most importantly, the Regional Government must provide financial and logistical reserves as well as anticipatory mechanisms that are ready to support effective disaster management efforts. One of the efforts of the Bima Regency Regional Government is to determine priority disasters. Determining priority disasters in Bima Regency using a priority disaster matrix based on data on disaster risk levels and data on trends in disaster occurrence for each type of disaster.

The intrinsically disordered frequency isoforms of Neurospora crassa play a dynamic role in negative arm circadian clock regulation

The Earths predictable light/dark cycle has led to the ubiquitous evolution of anticipatory mechanisms known as circadian rhythms which provide organisms with elevated survival and reproductive fitness. Investigations into the circadian core clock oscillator have revealed its control of an astounding amount of cellular physiology. However, the mechanistic details of the molecular oscillator are still poorly understood. The oscillator is comprised of a transcription-translation feedback loop and one of its intriguing and conserved features is the extensive level of intrinsic disorder in the negative arm elements.

The long history of prevention: Social Defence, security and anticipating future crimes in the era of ‘penal welfarism’

Using a combination of documentary and archival research methods, this article explores the development of Social Defence criminology across the 19th and 20th centuries—highlighting the influence the ‘new’ Social Defence movement had upon the United Nations' and Council of Europe's international crime policy programmes. By exploring the integration of Social Defence within these international programmes, the article is able to challenge several longstanding arguments in Criminology which associate pre-crime and the securitization of criminal justice with the neoliberal era. Social Defence scholars influenced International Organizations to research and disseminate anticipatory mechanisms to identify and reform potential deviants decades earlier than prominent theses suggest. These measures were steeped in the language of security and were oriented towards the prevention of future juvenile crime. The article argues for a reweighing of the influence of Social Defence criminology and against accounts which draw significant divisions between ‘penal welfarism’ and ‘neoliberal penality’.

Cognitive Modeling of Anticipation: Unsupervised Learning and Symbolic Modeling of Pilots' Mental Representations.

The ability to anticipate team members' actions enables joint action towards a common goal. Task knowledge and mental simulation allow for anticipating other agents' actions and for making inferences about their underlying mental representations. In human-AI teams, providing AI agents with anticipatory mechanisms can facilitate collaboration and successful execution of joint action. This paper presents a computational cognitive model demonstrating mental simulation of operators' mental models of a situation and anticipation of their behavior. The work proposes two successive steps: (1) A hierarchical cluster algorithm is applied to recognize patterns of behavior among pilots. These behavioral clusters are used to derive commonalities in situation models from empirical data (N = 13 pilots). (2) An ACT-R (adaptive control of thought - rational) cognitive model is implemented to mentally simulate different possible outcomes of action decisions and timing of a pilot. model tracing of ACT-R allows following up on operators' individual actions. Two models are implemented using the symbolic representations of ACT-R: one simulating normative behavior and the other by simulating individual differences and using subsymbolic learning. Model performance is analyzed by a comparison of both models. Results indicate the improved performance of the individual differences over the normative model and are discussed regarding implications for cognitive assistance capable of anticipating operatorbehavior.

Antioxidant and non-specific immune defenses in partially freeze-tolerant Xizang plateau frogs, Nanorana parkeri.

The Xizang plateau frog Nanorana parkeri can tolerate brief and partial freezing of their body. To determine the significant role of antioxidant defense and non-specific immune defense in freezing survival of this species, we assayed parameters of oxidative damage, antioxidant defense and non-specific immune enzymes during freezing exposure (-2°C for 12h) in five organs (heart, brain, liver, kidney, and skeletal muscle). The results showed that freezing led to a significant rise in the content of malondialdehyde (MDA) and carbonyl groups (CG) in brain, liver and kidney tissues. The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) increased significantly in brain and liver tissues with an augmentation of total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC). Apparent increments in muscle SOD activity and liver GST activity were also observed during freezing exposure. Vitamin C content significantly decreased in liver and kidney but a significant increase occurred in brain. Activities of non-specific immune enzymes, acid phosphatase (ACP) and alkaline phosphatase (AKP), were also assessed. ACP activity was significantly reduced in all five tissues tested whereas AKP activity decreased significantly in four tissues but rose in brain. In summary, freezing is accompanied by oxidative stress in the high-altitude frog, N. parkeri, as documented by increases in the content of MDA and CG in tissues. Freezing exposure also induced tissue-specific changes in the antioxidant defenses showing that activation of antioxidant systems is a part of the survival strategy of this in a high-altitude frog during freezing. Such up-regulation of antioxidant enzymes suggests a particularly important role for them in the liver and brain, serving as an anticipatory mechanism to deal with the ROS challenge during freeze/thaw episodes. Our findings contribute to extending the current understanding of the mechanisms of freeze tolerance in high-altitude frogs.

Co-option of immune effectors by the hormonal signalling system triggering metamorphosis in Drosophila melanogaster.

Insect metamorphosis is triggered by the production, secretion and degradation of 20-hydroxyecdysone (ecdysone). In addition to its role in developmental regulation, increasing evidence suggests that ecdysone is involved in innate immunity processes, such as phagocytosis and the induction of antimicrobial peptide (AMP) production. AMP regulation includes systemic responses as well as local responses at surface epithelia that contact with the external environment. At pupariation, Drosophila melanogaster increases dramatically the expression of three AMP genes, drosomycin (drs), drosomycin-like 2 (drsl2) and drosomycin-like 5 (drsl5). We show that the systemic action of drs at pupariation is dependent on ecdysone signalling in the fat body and operates via the ecdysone downstream target, Broad. In parallel, ecdysone also regulates local responses, specifically through the activation of drsl2 expression in the gut. Finally, we confirm the relevance of this ecdysone dependent AMP expression for the control of bacterial load by showing that flies lacking drs expression in the fat body have higher bacterial persistence over metamorphosis. In contrast, local responses may be redundant with the systemic effect of drs since reduction of ecdysone signalling or of drsl2 expression has no measurable negative effect on bacterial load control in the pupa. Together, our data emphasize the importance of the association between ecdysone signalling and immunity using in vivo studies and establish a new role for ecdysone at pupariation, which impacts developmental success by regulating the immune system in a stage-dependent manner. We speculate that this co-option of immune effectors by the hormonal system may constitute an anticipatory mechanism to control bacterial numbers in the pupa, at the core of metamorphosis evolution.

Oscillatory entrainment mechanisms and anticipatory predictive processes in children with autism spectrum disorder.

Anticipating near-future events is fundamental to adaptive behavior, whereby neural processing of predictable stimuli is significantly facilitated relative to nonpredictable events. Neural oscillations appear to be a key anticipatory mechanism by which processing of upcoming stimuli is modified, and they often entrain to rhythmic environmental sequences. Clinical and anecdotal observations have led to the hypothesis that people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may have deficits in generating predictions, and as such, a candidate neural mechanism may be failure to adequately entrain neural activity to repetitive environmental patterns, to facilitate temporal predictions. We tested this hypothesis by interrogating temporal predictions and rhythmic entrainment using behavioral and electrophysiological approaches. We recorded high-density electroencephalography in children with ASD and typically developing (TD) age- and IQ-matched controls, while they reacted to an auditory target as quickly as possible. This auditory event was either preceded by predictive rhythmic visual cues or was not preceded by any cue. Both ASD and control groups presented comparable behavioral facilitation in response to the Cue versus No-Cue condition, challenging the hypothesis that children with ASD have deficits in generating temporal predictions. Analyses of the electrophysiological data, in contrast, revealed significantly reduced neural entrainment to the visual cues and altered anticipatory processes in the ASD group. This was the case despite intact stimulus-evoked visual responses. These results support intact behavioral temporal prediction in response to a cue in ASD, in the face of altered neural entrainment and anticipatory processes.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We examined behavioral and EEG indices of predictive processing in children with ASD to rhythmically predictable stimuli. Although behavioral measures of predictive processing and evoked neural responses were intact in the ASD group, neurophysiological measures of preparatory activity and entrainment were impaired. When sensory events are presented in a predictable temporal pattern, performance and neuronal responses in ASD may be governed more by the occurrence of the events themselves and less by their anticipated timing.