Anthropometric Scores Research Articles

Nutritional deficiency and women’s empowerment in agriculture: Evidence from Nigeria

This study investigates the relationship between women’s empowerment in agriculture, their nutritional status and those of their children. Growing empirical evidence suggests that there is a positive link, but that not all empowerment dimensions influence nutritional outcomes. Using longitudinal data from the Nigeria Living Standards Measurement Study – Integrated Surveys on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA), covering the period from 2010 to 2016, specific evidence on this topic is provided. Our findings show no relationship between women’s empowerment as measured by women who own agricultural land and have access to credit, and their caloric energy intake. Nevertheless, if women jointly own land and other agricultural inputs with their spouse, it has a positive influence on their caloric energy intake. The children’s anthropometric scores responded positively to women’s empowerment indicators, although with differential effects for boys and girls. Women’s access to agricultural inputs and land rights are necessary conditions for maximising the potential benefits derived from the women-empowerment-nutrition link. Improvements in the anthropometric scores of girl children of empowered women should be considered a priority for intervention programs.

Physical and Anthropometric Characteristics Do Not Differ According to Birth Year Quartile in High-Level Junior Australian Football Players.

The aim of this study was to explore differences in the physical fitness and anthropometric profiles between birth year quartiles of players attending the Australian Football League (AFL) National Draft Combine. Date of birth, anthropometric, 20 m sprint, vertical and running vertical jump, AFL planned agility, and 20 m Multi-Stage Fitness Test (MSFT) data were obtained for players selected to attend the Combine between 1999 and 2019 (n = 1549; Mage = 18.1; SDage = 0.3). The underlying density distributions of the data were visually explored using violin plots overlaid with box and whisker plots. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was then used to model the main effect of birth quartile (four levels) on the physical and anthropometric scores. Results showed that physical and anthropometric test scores did not significantly differ according to birth quartile (V = 0.008, F = 0.880, p = 0.631). We conclude that the physical and anthropometric profiles of high-level junior Australian Football players were similar according to birth year quartile across the modeled period. Therefore, how players utilize their physical and anthropometric attributes during game-play via contextualized, representative assessments, such as small-sided games, should be considered when examining potential causes of a RAE.

Does severity of intellectual disability affect the nutritional status of intellectually disabled children and adolescents?

Background: Balanced and adequate nutrition is important to improve the quality of life of children with intellectual disability but most of these children are negatively affected by nutritional problems. Objective: This study was conducted to determine the nutritional status and effect of the severity of intellectual disability on nutritional status of children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities. Methods: One hundred twenty-two intellectually disabled children aged 4–18 years from five different special education and rehabilitation centers were included in the study. Their socio-demographic characteristics, body weight, height, body mass index (BMI), mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC), and skinfold thickness were examined, and their three-day food consumption record was taken. Results: Anthropometric scores did not differ significantly according to the severity of intellectual disability. According to evaluations made based on the World Health Organization’s 2007 percentile curves, 61.4% of the subjects with mild intellectual disability (MID), 57.1% of those with moderate intellectual disability (MOID), and 53.3% of those with severe intellectual disability (SID) were within the normal BMI range for their age. Conclusion: Rates of malnutrition and shortness in children and adolescents with SID were found to be higher than among children with MID and MOID, though the differences were not statistically significant.

Novel clinical and radiological measures of lower limb obesity.

Osteoarthritis of the knee is strongly associated with central obesity, and the prevalence of obesity in patients undergoing knee arthroplasty procedures is expected to increase. Central obesity is associated with multiple adverse outcomes after knee arthroplasty, but the impact of obesity specifically around the operated knee is poorly understood. One reason for this is the absence of a standardized measure, analogous to BMI for central obesity, to facilitate research. The aim of this study was to develop a radiological limb obesity scoring system which reliably corresponds with anthropometric measurements. Detailed anthropometric and radiological measurements were taken from patients undergoing total and unicompartmental knee replacement. Anthropometric measurements were combined into a composite score using principal components analysis. Different radiological scoring methods were evaluated against the anthropometric measure using correlation and regression analyses. Intraclass correlation coefficients were used to evaluate intra- and inter-observer reliability of the radiographic measurements. Measurements were obtained from fifty patients. There was a significant correlation between the composite anthropometric score and unadjusted radiological soft tissue width at the level of the femoral condyles (p < 0.001). There was also a significant correlation with the ratio of tissue to bone widths at the same level (p < 0.001), and fit was improved by including variables coding for soft tissues overlapping the medial or lateral boundaries of the radiograph. We have demonstrated a methodology for producing standardized radiological limb obesity scores which are strongly correlated with anthropometric measurements, and which can be easily applied in diverse clinical and research settings.

Quality of Life in Children and Adolescents with Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Impact and Predictive Factors.

PurposeInflammatory bowel disease (IBD) in children and adolescents is associated with high morbidity and possibly has a significant negative impact on their quality of life. This study aimed to evaluate the quality of life of children and adolescents with IBD and define the variables that impact these individuals.MethodsWe administered the Pediatric Quality of Life Questionnaire (PedsQL) to 35 children and adolescents diagnosed with IBD and with available quantitative data from clinical records on epidemiology, clinical evolution, complementary tests, medical interventions, and disease activity. Data were evaluated according to the IBD type and compared with a control group of healthy children.ResultsThe study group showed a significantly lower PedsQL score than the control group (p<0.01). Significant factors contributing to poor overall quality of life included female sex, Crohn's disease, surgery, and food restrictions. Symptoms such as diarrhea and the fear of using public toilets were associated with low physical scores. Feeling sick had a negative impact on the emotional PedsQL scores. Patients with a fear of using public toilets, anthropometric scores below the 3rd percentile, and greater disease activity scored lower in the social domain. Regarding school and psychosocial evaluations, younger children with symptom onset after the age of 2 years had lower scores than younger children with symptom onset before the age of 2 years.ConclusionIBD negatively affects the quality of life of children and adolescents based on its impact on the physical, emotional, social, and psychosocial statuses of these patients.

Anthropometric outcomes of a motivational interviewing school-based randomized trial involving adolescents with overweight.

Motivational interviewing (MI) is an effective method to promote weight loss that can be delivered by non-mental health providers. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether MI was superior to conventional counseling to improve the anthropometric outcomes of adolescents with obesity/overweight. It was a controlled cluster randomized trial with parallel design in a school setting. The study included two groups: Motivational Interviewing Group (MIG) and control group (Conventional Intervention Group, CIG). Students participated in three face-to-face 30-min interviews, 3months apart. Outcomes were BMI z-score, abdominal circumference, percentages of fat mass and muscle mass, and blood pressure. Sessions were coded with the Motivational Interviewing Treatment Integrity (MITI) manual. Mixed repeated-measures ANOVAs were used to assess the group versus time interaction. Effect sizes were calculated for each ANOVA with eta-squared measures (η2). Eighty-three adolescents finished the protocol. While MIG participants showed a significant improvement in all anthropometric scores at 6months, CIG participants showed an unfavorable change in those variables.Conclusion: Our results provide additional evidence of the short-term usefulness of a school-based MI intervention on anthropometric outcomes of adolescents with obesity/overweight, demonstrating that pediatricians can play an important role in the prevention and management of pediatric obesity.Trial registration: The study is called IMAGINE and is registered in Clinicaltrials.gov with the number NCT02745795. What is Known: • Although MI has been recognized as an effective counseling style for behavioral change in weight loss, there are few reports about the anthropometric outcomes of interventions with adolescents being treated for obesity/overweight. • Our study showed significant positive changes in anthropometric variables (BMI z-score, abdominal circumference, percentage of fat mass, percentage of muscular mass, systolic and diastolic blood pressure) after only three face-to-face sessions over 6months. What is New: • MI delivered by non-mental health providers in a school setting seems to have short-term usefulness in a program aiming the treatment of obese/overweight adolescents.

The Impact of Exercise on Stress Management in Federal Officers

Many Federal Officers (FO) serve in a high-stress, yet highly sedentary position. This combination places FO at greater risk for a variety of health issues. PURPOSE: The purpose of this descriptive study was to examine the level of physical fitness in FO and determine the relationship between exercise (EX) on Quality of Life (QoL) scores. METHODS: A total of 19 FO participated in this study (10 males and 9 females; mean ± SD age = 39.1 ± 8.1y, height = 172.1 ± 8.6cm, weight = 75.9 ± 15.3kg, and BMI = 25.5 ± 3.8kg/m2). The Cooper’s Test of physical fitness (1.5mile run, 1-min max push-ups, 1-min max sit-ups, and vertical jump) as well as a 150m shuttle run and max grip strength were performed before and after six-months of unsupervised, voluntary exercise. In addition, subjects completed weekly online surveys indicating EX type, weekly total EX time, feelings of well-being, and a 10-point questionnaire on weekly stress (QoL). RESULTS: Time reported performing cardiorespiratory and resistance training was slightly below ACSM recommendations (cardio = 129.5 ± 20.3 min/week, resistance = 81.0 ± 18.5 min/week). A paired-samples t-test showed no significant changes in any anthropometric scores after 6-months of unsupervised training. Baseline vs 6-month Cooper’s Test fitness results showed no significant changes with the exception of performance on the Sit-&-Reach (pre = 34.5 ± 9.2cm, 6-month = 41.9 ± 8.8cm, p<0.05). There was little to no correlation between QoL scores and amount or type of EX (average r2 = 0.03). During follow up interviews, some participants indicated they were less likely to respond to weekly surveys if they did not exercise that week. The average response rate ranged from 36% to 80%. CONCLUSIONS: While EX is an important element for overall health and well-being, in FO there was little connection between amount of type of EX and overall QoL.

No Female Disadvantage in Anthropometric Status among Children in India

Female disadvantage in child mortality, intra-household allocation of food and coverage of health interventions has been shown to exist in India. At the same time, there has been limited examination of female disadvantage in nutritional status. Using measures of anthropometry and anthropometric failure, we study female disadvantage in child nutritional status from the data collected from the Indian National Family Health Survey (NFHS) undertaken in 1992–1993 and 2005–2006. Height and/or weight measurements were available on 70,148 children aged 0–47 months in both survey periods. Child anthropometry (height/length-for-age [HAZ], weight-for-age [WAZ], weight-for-height/length [WHZ]) and anthropometric failure (defined according to the 2006 WHO growth standards as stunting, wasting and underweight) were analysed using linear and logistic regression models. In pooled regression models, boys were more likely to have lower anthropometric scores and higher rates of anthropometric failure. Across survey periods, the change in anthropometric status was greater for boys compared to girls for WAZ/underweight and WHZ/wasting, but was similar for HAZ/stunting. Boy–girl differences in anthropometry (with boys doing worse) were greater at less than 24 months of age and narrowed over time particularly in the 0–5 and 6–11 month age groups, resulting in no gender differences in anthropometric status. Declines in anthropometric status in HAZ/stunting and WAZ/underweight were found among third or higher birth order boys and girls, especially within families with two preceding children of the same sex but also in households with preceding children of mixed genders, suggesting a birth order effect as opposed to a birth order and gender effect. In 1992–1993 and 2005–2006, levels of anthropometric failure were higher among boys compared to girls in a majority of states. Although girls had lower levels of anthropometric failure, the magnitude of the between survey period decline was higher in girls in fewer states compared to boys (5/20, 7/25 and 10/20 states for stunting, underweight and wasting, respectively). In summary, in the most recently available data, using measures of anthropometric status, we did not find consistent evidence for female disadvantage in nutritional status among girls in India.

Associations between women's autonomy and child nutritional status: a review of the literature.

Around the world, many women continue to experience low levels of autonomy. Recent literature has reported that the health consequences of low maternal autonomy extend beyond mothers and translate into health consequences for their children, and may be an important causal factor in child malnutrition. This review summarises the current knowledge of the relationship between maternal autonomy and children's nutritional status (defined as any measure that reflects the nutritional state of the body, such as birthweight or anthropometric scores) and child-feeding practices. The review also includes both discussion of the limitations found in the literature and directions for future research. A systematic review of the literature was conducted. Results of the studies included in the review strongly suggest that raising maternal autonomy is an important goal for improving children's nutritional status, yet gaps in the current knowledge exist, further confounded by issues with how autonomy is measured and limitations of cross-cultural comparability. A thorough understanding of the consequences of restricting women's autonomy will inform programmes and policy worldwide, and speed progress towards both empowering women and alleviating the global burden of child malnutrition.

Incidence and course of child malnutrition according to clinical or anthropometrical assessment: a longitudinal study from rural DR Congo

BackgroundLongitudinal studies describing incidence and natural course of malnutrition are scarce. Studies defining malnutrition clinically [moderate clinical malnutrition (McM) marasmus, kwashiorkor] rather than anthropometrically are rare. Our aim was to address incidence and course of malnutrition among pre-schoolers and to compare patterns and course of clinically and anthropometrically defined malnutrition.MethodsUsing a historical, longitudinal study from Bwamanda, DR Congo, we studied incidence of clinical versus anthropometrical malnutrition in 5 657 preschool children followed 3-monthly during 15 months.ResultsIncidence rates were highest in the rainy season for all indices except McM. Incidence rates of McM and marasmus tended to be higher for boys than for girls in the dry season. Malnutrition rates increased from the 0–5 to the 6 – 11 months age category. McM and marasmus had in general a higher incidence at all ages than their anthropometrical counterparts, moderate and severe wasting. Shifts back to normal nutritional status within 3 months were more frequent for clinical than for anthropometrical malnutrition (62.2-80.3% compared to 3.4-66.4.5%). Only a minority of moderately stunted (30.9%) and severely stunted children (3.4%) shifted back to normal status. Alteration from severe to mild malnutrition was more characteristic for anthropometrically than for clinically defined malnutrition.ConclusionsOur data on age distribution of incidence and course of malnutrition underline the importance of early life intervention to ward off malnutrition. In principle, looking at incidence may yield different findings from those obtained by looking at prevalence, since incidence and prevalence differ approximately differ by a factor “duration”. Our findings show the occurrence dynamics of general malnutrition, demonstrating that patterns can differ according to nutritional assessment method. They suggest the importance of applying a mix of clinical and anthropometric methods for assessing malnutrition instead of just one method. Functional validity of characterization of aspects of individual nutritional status by single anthropometric scores or by simple clinical classification remain issues for further investigation.

Nutritional status in patients with chronic pancreatitis

Chronic pancreatitis (CP) patients have an increased risk of malnutrition. Information about nutritional status of CP outpatients is scarce, and simple, sensitive methods to identify patients at risk are lacking. This explorative cross-sectional study was performed to survey the nutritional status of CP outpatients. Fifty patients with chronic or recurrent acute pancreatitis (RAP) had a nutritional assessment performed. Scores on nutritional screening tools and a quality of life questionnaire were assessed. General observations and relations between parameters were described. Thirty-nine patients had CP and eleven patients had RAP. According to the nutritional screening tools, 28-50% of the patients had a moderate or high risk of malnutrition. All domains of the Short Form Health Survey were significantly lowered in CP patients (all P0.001) compared with the Dutch norm values. A considerable number of patients scored below the 5th percentile on anthropometric measures. Mini Nutritional Assessment could not identify all patients with very low anthropometric scores. Substantial weight loss was not a sensitive indicator for functional impairment. CP outpatients are at risk of malnutrition. Currently used screening methods (for example, weight loss) are likely to be not sensitive enough to identify all patients with impaired body composition and restricted function. Therefore, some patients with objective decline in nutritional status will remain unidentified. An extended nutritional assessment is recommendable in CP patients.

Month of Birth and Children's Health in India

We use data from three waves of India National Family Health Survey to explore the relationship between the month of birth and the health outcomes of young children in India. We find that children born during the monsoon months have lower anthropometric scores compared to children born during the fall-winter months. We propose and test hypotheses that could explain such a correlation. Our results emphasize the importance of seasonal variations in environmental conditions at the time of birth in determining health outcomes of young children in India. Policy interventions that affect these conditions could effectively impact the health and achievements of these children, in a manner similar to nutrition and micronutrient supplementation programs.

Moving on Up? Migration, Urbanization and the Dissolution of the Urban Health Advantage in South Africa

I use anthropometric scores from two nationally representative surveys in South Africa to examine the comparative changes in urban and rural children’s health over the 15 years post-Apartheid. I find that the urban advantage in children’s health disappears despite urban children retaining considerable advantages in average household socioeconomic status. I then explore several explanations for this pattern common in the urbanization literature, including the growth of particularly vulnerable urban populations, such as migrants and residents of informal areas, and/or the deepening of household poverty in the poorest urban areas. I do not find evidence of deteriorated circumstances for the urban poor, but I do find evidence that rural-urban migrants have begun to show a health disadvantage. However it appears to be related to the relative poverty of rural-urban migrants. I then follow the Dinardo Fortin Lemeiux decomposition method to explore relative shifts in the distribution household wealth and parental education in urban and rural households. I find that the differential gains are likely due to large improvements made by very poor rural households rather than deterioration in urban wellbeing.

Somatic growth following congenital heart surgery in economically underprivileged children

ObjectivesTo assess the impact of congenital heart surgery on anthropometric scores of growth in economically disadvantaged children.MethodsA cohort of 100 economically disadvantaged children was followed up after cardiac surgery for...

Is the NREGS a Safety Net for Children? Studying the Access to the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme for Young Lives Families, and its Impact on Child Outcomes in Andhra Pradesh

The NREGS is an ambitious public works program intended to provide a basic safety net to the rural poor in India. Institutionalised in 2005, it is currently the largest public works program in the world. Despite its scale and the political importance attached to the program, its success in targeting and its impact on participating households has not been well studied. This paper attempts to study two aspects of the program’s functioning using data from the Young Lives longitudinal Study conducted in Andhra Pradesh. Firstly it looks at the targeting of the program and the characteristics of those who self select into it. We find that poorer and lower caste households are more likely to register as are those affected by drought. We also find that having more than 5 influential relatives increases the probability of registration by 10.3 percentage points. We next attempt to estimate the impact of program participation on the children in participating households, looking specifically at anthropometric scores as indicators of health outcomes, and the incidence of child labour. While there seems to be a positive correlation between program participation and health outcomes, this does not remain robust across specifications. On the other hand we find that program registration reduces the probability of a boy entering child labour by 13.4% points and program take up reduces it for girls by 8.19% points. We find that the targeting efficiency of the program seems to be largely effective and it seems to offer a viable security net for households with variable employment opportunities. It also seems to have an important effect on children, further strengthening the program’s significance.

Promoter adiponectin polymorphisms and waist/hip ratio variation in a prospective French adults study

Adiponectin expression and plasma concentrations are decreased in human and animal models of obesity. Several single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the adiponectin gene are known to influence the plasmatic concentration of the encoded protein. Some of these adiponectin polymorphisms have been associated with BMI in cross-sectional studies. The aim of our study was to examine the longitudinal relationships between adiponectin gene polymorphisms and anthropometric indices. Two adiponectin gene (ADIPOQ) SNPs, -11391G>A and -11377C>G, were genotyped in 837 French Caucasian subjects from the SUpplémentation en VItamines et Minéraux Anti-oXydants (SU.VI.MAX) cohort. Anthropometric scores were measured at three clinical examinations over a 7-year period. For -11391G>A as well as for -11377C>G, we detected no association between the variant allele and anthropometric measurements at baseline. Considering longitudinal effects, we detected moderately higher waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) changes for the carriers of the -11391A (P=0.02) and -11377C (P=0.03) allele over the follow-up of the study. -11391G>A and -11377C>G define haplotypes associated also with WHR measurements and their changes over the follow-up of the study. Diploid configurations that combine -11391A and -11377C were associated with significantly higher WHR changes (DeltaCE: P=0.02) compared to other haplotypes. In addition, higher adiponectin levels were observed in AC/AC diplotypes compared to GG/GG carriers (P<0.0001). In the SU.VI.MAX study, genetic variations in the adiponectin gene affect abdominal fat gain over life span.

Circulating antioxidants and lipid peroxidation products in untreated tuberculosis patients in Ethiopia

Knowledge of the antioxidant profile and its relation to lipid peroxidation in tuberculosis patients with or without accompanying HIV infection is scarce, particularly in developing countries. The objective was to further investigate the interaction between HIV, tuberculosis, and antioxidants and their relations with markers of oxidative stress in a large population of Ethiopians. In a cross-sectional study, we evaluated antioxidants and markers of oxidative stress in Ethiopian tuberculosis patients with (n = 25) and without (n = 100) HIV infection and in Ethiopian (n = 45) and Norwegian (n = 25) healthy control subjects. Concentrations of the antioxidant vitamins C and E and of vitamin A were significantly lower in tuberculosis patients than in healthy Ethiopians. Tuberculosis patients also had significantly lower thiol concentrations, particularly of the reduced forms. Tuberculosis patients, particularly those who were co-infected with HIV, had higher malondialdehyde concentrations than did control subjects. High malondialdehyde concentrations were associated with clinical severity as measured by the Karnofsky Performance Status Index and anthropometric scores. Ethiopian control subjects had lower concentrations of vitamin E and higher concentrations of malondialdehyde than did Norwegian control subjects. Our findings further support a link between oxidative stress, tuberculosis, and HIV infection. However, whether antioxidant supplementation will improve tuberculosis outcome or is of importance for its prevention should be further examined in future prospective studies.

Antibiotic prophylaxis in infants and young children with cystic fibrosis: A randomized controlled trial

Objectives: To evaluate whether antistaphylococcal prophylaxis in infants and young children with cystic fibrosis (CF) would suppress the acquisition of Staphylococcus aureus and delay the onset of the manifestations of bronchopulmonary disease. Study design: A 7-year, multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of continuous antistaphylococcal therapy. Otherwise healthy children <2 years of age with CF were randomly assigned to be treated with daily cephalexin (80-100 mg/kg/day) or placebo. Clinical, microbiologic, laboratory, radiographic, and anthropometric outcomes were evaluated. Results: Of 209 children enrolled, 119 completed a 5- to 7-year course of therapy. Mean age at enrollment was 15.6 and 14.1 months in the cephalexin and placebo groups, respectively. Respiratory cultures from children treated with cephalexin were significantly less likely to be positive for S aureus (6.0% vs 30.4%; P < .001). They were, however, much more likely to be positive for Pseudomonas aeruginosa (25.6% vs 13.5%; P < .009). These differences became apparent in the first year after enrollment and persisted over the duration of the study. In contrast to these microbiologic differences, there were no differences in clinical outcome measures, including radiographic (Brasfield score, 23.4 vs 23.2) or anthropometric scores or pulmonary function. Conclusions: Although long-term prophylaxis with cephalexin successfully delayed the acquisition of S aureus, it enhanced colonization with P aeruginosa and did not lead to clinically significant improvement in major health outcomes. These data do not support routine antistaphylococcal prophylaxisin otherwise healthy infants and young children with CF. (J Pediatr 2002;140:299-305)

Age, sex and anthropometric status of children in an African pastoral community

The study objective was to explore sex differences in anthropometric status of children from a semi-nomadic population of Datoga pastoralists living in northern Tanzania and test the hypothesis that any differences would be related to age- and gender-specific work activities. Anthropometric measurements made on 438 individual children (0-18 years) were used to assess the association of various anthropometric measures of achieved growth status with age, sex and season of measurement. There was a high overall prevalence of indicators of undernutrition but the risk of undernutrition was not uniformly distributed within the child population. Comparison of cross-sectional mean anthropometric scores suggested that children over 5 years, girls 5-8 years, boys 9-12 years and teenagers were found to be at highest risk of undernutrition as assessed by various indicators. Although the prevalence of all indicators of undernutrition showed a significant increase with age, the prevalence of indicators of undernutrition did not show a statistically significant sex difference within any age group. There was little evidence of sex-preferential treatment of children or strongly biased sex ratios or mortality rates. Taken together, these results indicate that the anthropometric status of children may be associated with the age- and gender-specific pattern of work activities typical of this population. Possible mechanisms through which anthropometric status may be influenced by work activities are hypothesized.

Effect of fragile X on physical and intellectual traits estimated by pedigree analysis.

A maximum likelihood scoring technique for analysis of pedigree data, which allows for estimation of random effects (variance components) concurrently with other "fixed" effects in a quantitative trait, was applied to establish the effect of the fragile X condition in the variation of intellectual and physical traits. In 52 fragile X families, intellectual status was represented by measures of vocabulary knowledge (PPVT) and of nonverbal visuospatial skills (BDT), and physical status by a combined physical (anthropometric) score, and jaw length. The fixed effects included fragile X and sex and their interaction on the mean and covariances between relatives for the intellectual and physical scores. The random effects included environmental (common and individual) and genetic (additive and dominance) components. Different genetic models were tested by the likelihood ratio criterion, and the maximum likelihood parameters for each of the three scores were based on the most appropriate models. The effect of fragile X on the mean values was found to be significant for all the traits, and much more conspicuous in male than in female individuals, the effects in the PPVT and the anthropometric score being intercorrelated. The effect of fragile X on growth of a single physical trait relative to height was demonstrated using jaw length as an example. We have also demonstrated an effect of fragile X on genetic (additive) variance, as well as on the mean of the BDT score, and the effect of age on the nongenetic variance of PPVT, and jaw length.