Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence Research Articles

A component analysis of ABC assessments as demonstrated through function based interventions

AbstractResearch demonstrates that in order to implement a successful behavior analytic intervention, one must first identify the maintaining contingencies of the target behavior. Descriptive assessments are the most commonly used functional assessment used by behavior analysts (Oliver et al., 2015), although, comparative research further supports the use of analog functional analyses over descriptive assessments. As a way to assess the components of descriptive assessments to increase their accuracy, antecedent‐behavior‐consequence (ABC) assessments and functional analysis procedures were used to analyze the key components of descriptive assessment and were then verified with the implementation of a function‐based intervention. Results indicated that conditional probabilities from the antecedent condition were verified as the function in the functional analysis and treatment. Implications for clinicians and researchers are reviewed.

Comparison of Descriptive Assessment and Trial-Based Functional Analysis as the Basis of Treatment in Homes

Effective treatment of challenging behaviors in young children with autism spectrum disorder requires identifying consequences that maintain the behavior under specific environmental circumstances. Assessment strategies help to identify environmental factors setting the occasion for the behaviors to continue to occur. Many studies have used antecedent–behavior–consequence (ABC) data collection strategies, but few have examined its ability to effectively identify the function. Research supports the use of the trial-based functional analysis (TBFA) but few studies examine its effectiveness in the home setting. The current study attempted to answer which assessments might work best in the home setting. Treatment was implemented for each participant based on the results of their assessments. All assessments identified the function of behavior as verified by function-based treatments, but the ABC assessment identified additional functions for three of the participants while the TBFA was more precise. Implications and limitations are reviewed, along with future directions for behavioral assessment in the home.

Behavioral skills training to teach pre-service elementary general educators to conduct descriptive assessments

A pretest-posttest control group design with switching replications was used to examine the effectiveness of a one-time, 75-minute behavioral skills training (BST) package. Fifty pre-service elementary general educators enrolled in a classroom management course were shown a video depicting challenging behaviors and were asked to collect antecedent-behavior-consequence (ABC) data. Using the data collected, participants from two instructional groups were asked to hypothesize the function of the problem behaviors. Results suggest a statistically significant increase in correct responses for both instructional groups from pretest to posttest following BST. A series of ANCOVAS suggested that, when controlling for initial pretest performance, BST significantly improved correct responding in posttest when compared to performance on the second pretest. However, participants did not reach an optimal level of performance following a one-time administration of BST. Practical implications for teacher education contexts, limitations, and future research directions are thoroughly addressed.

Violence Toward and by Youth: Part II: Recommendations for Violence Interventions in the School Setting.

Violence toward and by youth is a public health crisis that can partially be addressed by the modified Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence (ABC) Model. Part I of this two-part series discussed the types of violence and the risk and protective factors that affect the prevalence of violence; it also addressed the emotions and thoughts that occur before the behaviors to help explain "why" youth engage in violence. Part II focuses on possible interventions by the school nurse and school staff. The modified ABC Model allows school nurses to focus on interventions that address the emotions and thoughts resulting from the antecedents as well as promote protective factors. Through their role in primary prevention, school nurses can also address risk factors for violence and participate in school and the wider community's efforts to mitigate violence.

Scenario modeling for government big data governance decision-making: Chinese experience with public safety services

In the public safety service context, government big data governance (GBDG) is a challenging decision-making problem that encompasses uncertainties in the arenas of big data and its complex links. Modeling and collaborating the key scenario information required for GBDG decision-making can minimize system uncertainties. However, existing scenario-building methods are limited by their rigidity as they are employed in various application contexts and the associated high costs of modeling. In this paper, using a design science paradigm, a model-driven scenario modeling approach is proposed to achieve flexible scenario modeling for various applications through the transfer of generic domain knowledge. The key component of the proposed approach is a scenario meta-model that is built from existing literatures and practices by integrating qualitative, quantitative, and meta-modeling analysis. An instantiation mechanism of the scenario meta-model is also proposed to generate customized scenarios under Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence (ABC) theory. Two real-world safety service cases in Wuhan, China were evaluated to find that the proposed approach reduces GBDG decision-making uncertainties significantly by providing key information for GBDG problem identification, solution design, and solution value perception. This scenario-building approach can be further used to develop other GBDG systems for public safety services with reduced uncertainties and complete decision-making functions.

Behavioural intervention to reduce disruptive behaviours in adult day care centres users: A randomizsed clinical trial (PROCENDIAS study).

This study assesses the effect of an intervention to reduce the disruptive behaviours (DB) presented by care recipient users of adult day care centres (ADCC), thereby reducing caregiver overload. While ADCC offer beneficial respite for family caregivers, the DB that many care recipients show promote resistance to attending these centres, which can be a great burden on their family caregivers. Randomized controlled clinical trial. The study was carried out with 130 family caregivers of people attending seven ADCC in the municipality of Salamanca (Spain), randomly distributed into intervention and control groups. The intervention was applied across eight sessions, one per week, in groups of 8-10 people where caregivers were trained in the Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence (ABC) model of functional behaviour analysis. The primary outcome was the reduction of DB measured with the Revised Memory and Behavior Problems Checklist (RMBPC). An average reduction in the RMBPC of 4.34 points was obtained in the intervention group after applying the intervention (p<0.01 (U de Mann-Whitney); Cohen d=1.00); furthermore, differences were found in the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) (U=-2.67; p=0.008; Cohen d=0.50) and in the Short Zarit Burden Interview (Short ZBI) (t=-4.10; p<0.01; Cohen d=0.98). The results obtained suggest that the implementation of this intervention could reduce both the frequency of DB occurrence and the reaction of the caregiver to their appearance. Improvement was also noted in the results regarding overload and emotional state of the family caregiver. To our knowledge, this is the first randomized clinical trial to show that an intervention based on the ABC model could reduce the frequency and reaction of DB of care recipients in ADCC increasing their quality of life, and improving the mental health and overload of their family caregivers.

Effects of Self-Monitoring of Antecedents and Consequences on the Mother of an Adolescent Child Exhibiting Behavior Problems

Behavioral consultation using an antecedent-behavior-consequence (A-B-C) narrative recording chart was implemented in this study with the mother of an adolescent child to examine whether improving the accuracy of the mother’s monitoring of antecedents and consequences would lead to decreases in problem behaviors in parent–child interactions. A single-case A-B design with follow-up was applied. At the baseline, the mother recorded parent–child interactions after learning how to complete the chart. In the intervention, we provided positive corrective feedback on maternal performance. Following the intervention, problem behaviors decreased with improved monitoring accuracy. The results suggest conditions under which self-monitoring procedures function effectively.

Conceptualizing Fixed-Interval Praise Delivery

This article provides a conceptual framework for using fixed-interval praise delivery in the educational setting. Fixed-interval praise delivery can be conceptualized as an antecedent-based strategy that disrupts the natural behavior to contingency relationship in a four-term contingency model (Establishing operation–Antecedent–Behavior–Consequence). Historically, teachers are trained to deliver praise as a consequence-based practice (i.e., contingently). This article describes how teachers can also use praise on a fixed interval as an antecedent-based practice. When praise is delivered on a fixed-interval schedule, educators directly manipulate the level of praise delivered to maintain or increase appropriate student behavior. Using praise as an antecedent-based strategy has the potential to establish and maintain high-quality student–teacher relationships, which positively impacts student behavior. Practical, applied examples and discussion of fixed-interval praise delivery are provided.

Physical aggression toward teachers: Antecedents, behaviors, and consequences.

School violence is a significant public health concern that occurs in many forms. Physical aggression can cause serious bodily injury and long-term negative effects, and both teachers and students experience significant rates of physical aggression. There are few studies examining teachers' experiences of physical aggression. Studies that go beyond prevalence are limited, and we know little about the triggers and consequences that surround these incidents. This qualitative investigation used an antecedent-behavior-consequence (A-B-C) framework to understand how incidents of physical aggression directed toward teachers unfold. The sample included 193 elementary and secondary teachers who completed an anonymous, online survey and described events leading up to and following their experiences with physical aggression. Using conventional content analysis, we identified common antecedents, such as breaking up fights, discipline, and directives, and common consequences, such as student removal, school staff involvement, positive outcomes, and inaction. Further analyses revealed seven common A-B-C patterns among physical aggression incidents that are highlighted and discussed. Utility of the A-B-C framework for teacher-directed violence is described, along with implications for research, practice, and policy. Exploring the context surrounding incidents of physical aggression directed against teachers provides useful information for violence prevention and interventions.

Using ‘happy’ or ‘sad’ face in a decision-making grid to motivate students to improve academic success

A modified Decision-Making Grid was designed to collect data from students enrolled in Principles of Microeconomics classes. The students recorded their expected grade and learning tactics intended for each academic exercise throughout the course period. They earned a ‘happy’ or ‘sad’ face to signify positive or negative divergence of actual grade from expected grade. The Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence (ABC) model of Behavior Modification theory was adopted to study students’ academic behavior. Regression Results from 154 participants with 60 students as Grid users and 94 students as non-Grid users show statistically significant results supporting the hypotheses that: (1) self-motivation is positively impacted by intended activities leading behaviors towards achieving academic success; (2) self-motivation, and consequence of the behavior contribute positively to academic performance; and (3) the Grid users outperformed the non-Grid users in each of the assignments.

Further analysis of the unintentional discharge of firearms in law enforcement

Empirical analysis of the contexts in which UDs occur in law enforcement have only recently begun to emerge. We analyzed a novel sample of UD reports (N = 171) that occurred between 1992 and 2016, collected from one non-U.S. and three U.S. law enforcement entities. Using an established antecedent-behavior-consequence (A-B-C) taxonomy, reports were analyzed by context, officer behavior, type of firearm, injuries, deaths, and property damages. This study is the first to empirically document reports of UDs caused by the startle response and the first to analyze a substantial sample of UDs that involved handguns with a double-action only trigger mechanism. An expanded analysis of UD consequences suggested that deaths and injuries might be more prevalent than previously reported.

Relationship between Spontaneous Speech Function and Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function Profile in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Pilot Case Study

Background: Response inhibition and attentional flexibility are impaired in individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). We descriptively analyzed whether differences in the functions of spontaneous speech derived from Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence (A-B-C) analysis are related to the T-scores for response inhibition (“Inhibit”) and attentional flexibility (“Shift”) of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) profiles of children with ASD. Methods: Three children with ASD participated in this pilot case study. The BRIEF was used as a measure of executive function (EF). Spontaneous speech of all participants was recorded and classified into five categories: antecedent control of self (ACS), consequent control of self (CCS), antecedent control of others (ACO), consequent control of others (CCO), and exception (EXP). Results: The T-score for “Shift” of all participants exceeded a previously defined cut-off value. Spontaneous speech associated with “control of self” was not observed in any participant, while that associated with “control of others” varied among individuals. The participant with the highest frequency of spontaneous speech had the lowest “Shift” T-score, while the participant with the least active spontaneous speech had the highest “Shift” T-score. Conclusions: Our results suggest a potential association between spontaneous speech and a shift in executive function in children with ASD.

Toward a taxonomy of the unintentional discharge of firearms in law enforcement

An unintentional discharge (UD) is an activation of the trigger mechanism that results in an unplanned discharge that is outside of the firearm's prescribed use. UDs can result in injury or death, yet have been understudied in scientific literature. Pre-existing (1974–2015) UD reports (N = 137) from seven law enforcement agencies in the United States of America were analyzed by context, officer behavior, type of firearm, and injuries. Over 50% of UDs occurred in contexts with low threat potential while engaged in routine firearm tasks. The remaining UDs occurred in contexts with elevated to high threat potential during muscle co-activation, unfamiliar firearm tasks, contact with inanimate objects, and a medical condition. An antecedent-behavior-consequence (A-B-C) taxonomy as well as a standardized reporting form, based on the current findings and the existing literature, are offered as tools for identifying the conditions under which UDs may be likely to occur.

Severe Caregiver Distress Precipitating Dissociative Seizures in a Patient with Intellectual Disability and Epilepsy: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Hardships

Comorbid psychiatric diagnoses increase the caregiver burden in patients with intellectual disability (ID). There is scarce literature on the dynamics between caregiver distress and psychopathology in persons with ID, especially regarding the dissociative disorders. We present the case of a young female with cerebral palsy, ID, epilepsy and psychosis where conflict with caregivers due to their emotional over-involvement precipitated dissociative seizures. We performed Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence (ABC) analysis which helped in identifying negative expressed emotions in the caregivers. An integrated psychosocial intervention brought significant reduction in the dissociation which facilitated the overall therapeutic process. Adverse emotional turmoil due to expressed emotions from caregivers can precipitate dissociative events in patients with ID. Dissociative seizures in a patient with ID and epilepsy may pose diagnostic challenges and can hamper therapeutic response which can be overcome by behavior analyses and integrated psychosocial interventions.

Expression of soluble platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 and P-selectin and the significance in children with autism

Objective To investigate the expressions of soluble platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM-1) and P-selectin and the clinical significance in autistic children. Methods Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to detect serum PECAM-1 and P-selectin levels in 12 autistic children and 15 healthy children, the autistic children were scored by using Antecedent Behavior Consequence (ABC) Chart, and correlation analysis of PECAM-1 and ABC Chart was performed. Results The PECAM-1 level in autistic children was higher than that in healthy control group(t=2.06, P<0.05), and the P-selectin level was lower than that in healthy control group(t =2.05, P<0.05), at the same time, PECAM-1 level was positively correlated with the ABC scores in autistic children(r=0.67, P=0.017). Conclusions PECAM-1 as a representation of the immune system immune factors may be involved in the central nervous immune process of autistic children, which is related to ABC chart scores of autistic children.Also it prompts that autism is related to immune factors. Key words: Soluble platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1; P-selectin; Autism

A Demonstration of the Universal Problem-Solving Approach to Address Children’s Inappropriate Behavior in Head Start Classrooms

The purpose of this demonstration was to evaluate a universal intervention during teacher-identified routines that were characterized by significant classwide problem behavior. Six Head Start classrooms (seven groups of children, with one classroom divided into two groups) received two workshops and two coaching sessions on universal Positive Behavior Support. Participating teams were taught to use an antecedent–behavior–consequence problem-solving process and to develop and implement action plans addressing prevent–teach–respond (PTR) strategies to improve targeted routines. Following intervention, children’s inappropriate behavior decreased to below baseline levels in all six classrooms. Intervention fidelity in all six classrooms averaged 82.6% for the total intervention. Social validity ratings indicated that interventions were feasible for use in their classrooms and had positive effects on students and staff. This program evaluation suggests that, with support, preschool classroom teams can apply assessment-based action plans using PTR strategies to reduce the inappropriate behavior of students during difficult classroom routines.

Phenomenology and Modern Behavioral Psychology

Phenomenology and Modern Behavioral Psychology Lindsay B. Fletcher (bio) and Steven C. Hayes (bio) Keywords acceptance, contextualism, defusion, relational-frame-theory Pérez-Álvarez and Sass (2008) deserve praise for examining the philosophical roots of clinical psychological science. Modern psychology has moved away from the development of philosophy and theory that is needed to ground scientific investigation within a coherent system. The result is increasingly ill-defined constructs and research programs that each operate within their own divergent paradigm. B.F. Skinner is one of the few modern experimental behavioral psychologists who attempted to build a coherent science of behavior based on observable events with testable hypotheses. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT; Hayes, Strosahl, and Wilson 1999) and its associated basic science of cognition, Relational Frame Theory (RFT; Hayes, Barnes-Holmes, and Roche 2001), build on Skinner’s work to produce a more progressive science. Psychology and philosophy are different disciplines and how they are approached is defined by the objective. The purpose of philosophy from a scientific point of view is not the same as from a philosophical point of view. It is fine to compare radical behaviorism and phenomenology, but it seems important to ask whether and how this will lead to a more progressive science of behavior. In this commentary, we discuss the philosophy and theory that underlie ACT/RFT and show how they reflect on the relevant points made by the authors regarding the shared features of phenomenology and radical behaviorism. We make two adjustments to the explanation of radical behavioral concepts presented in the current paper to create a more coherent analysis. Finally, we show here how the development of a theory based on applied goals directly informs the methods used in clinical settings. Philosophical Assumptions The field of behavior analysis that originated with Skinner has different strands. Some are holistic and pragmatic, whereas others are elementalistic and mechanistic (Hayes, Hayes, and Reese 1988). ACT is based on an a-ontological philosophy termed functional contextualism (Hayes 1993), which views behavior analysis from a holistic and pragmatic perspective. Functional contextualism (AKA radical behaviorism) shares some of the assumptions of phenomenology, as has long been noted (Day 1969). For example, Pérez-Álvarez and Sass (2008) identify a-dualism, or monism, as a common feature. In functional contextualism, the whole is divided into functional units for the purpose of prediction and influence. A three-term contingency (antecedent–behavior–consequence) in behavior analysis is viewed as a [End Page 255] whole event with pragmatically distinguishable aspects, not an assemblage. As the authors point out, this results in a dialectic tension between stimulus control, action, and reinforcer because none are distinct units, and each is defined with reference to the others much as the front of a coin cannot exist without the back. These are not ontological entities, but functional units that are abstracted from the whole for pragmatic purposes. What is “radical” about radical behaviorism is that the philosopher, psychologist, or researcher participates in the event they are observing, and their own acts of scientific observation are identified based on their own functional properties. Behavioral Thinking In the service of further developing this philosophical and theoretical foundation and considering it along side phenomenology, we need to examine two aspects of the target article. The first regards the role of the environment in shaping behavior that is central to behavioral and contextual theories. The authors object to behaviorism’s notion of environment and suggest replacing it with the concept of the world, stating that “animals have environment, but man has world.” What is missing is an account of that shift. We believe that modern behavior analysis provides that account. Similarly, the paper argues that “reinforcers are not just things that follow behavior, but also, and above all, values that guide our life.” Again what is missing is an account of the precise behavioral basis for the distinction. In an attempt to do this, the authors incorrectly analyze operant behavior as future oriented, even appealing to final causality. In the three-term contingency, the discriminative stimulus sets the occasion for reinforcement of a particular behavior. The behavior of interest has been reinforced in similar contexts in the past, which gives...

THE EFFECTS OF CONSEQUENCE MANIPULATION DURING FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOR MAINTAINED BY NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

Two distinct analytic methods have been used to identify the function of problem behavior. The antecedent-behavior-consequence (ABC) method (Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, & Richman, 1982/1994) includes the delivery of consequences for problem behavior. The AB method (Carr & Durand, 1985) does not include consequence delivery, instead relying exclusively on antecedent conditions to evoke the behavior. The AB and ABC functional analysis methods were compared in this study with 4 children with developmental disabilities who engaged in task-related problem behavior. Results show that the ABC method identified an escape method for all four cases, whereas the AB method failed to identify a function for any case.

A practical approach to functional behavioral assessment in a public (state supported) school

A functional behavioral assessment was conducted to identify the maintaining function(s) of aberrant behaviors displayed by a 6-year-old diagnosed with multiple disabilities. The assessment included indirect measures such as interviews, rating scales, and direct observations such as antecedent, behavior, consequence (A‐B‐C) charting. These assessments allowed the teacher to develop a hypothesis about the maintaining function of the aberrant behaviors. A functional assessment was not conducted. Instead, treatment was initiated quickly based on an abbreviated analysis. The results showed decreased rates of aberrant behavior following the implementation of the functional assessment based intervention; however, occurrences of aberrant behavior were not eliminated. Additional analyses suggested that changes in routine may be analogous to high demand situations that act as setting events for aberrant behavior. The results are discussed in terms of developing strategies for identifying events at home and in the community that may influence the occurrence of aberrant behavior.

Descriptive analysis of parent–child interactions in young children with or at risk for developmental delay

AbstractChildren with developmental delay (DD) are at risk for behavior problems, but little is known about natural contingencies of reinforcement that these children experience. The present study used descriptive analysis (antecedent–behavior–consequence observations) to study parent–child interactions of fourty‐seven, 2–3 year‐old children with or at risk for DD. Child adaptive and inappropriate behavior as well as their antecedents and consequences were observed across four conditions (free play, parent‐directed play, mealtimes, parental distraction). When parents were engaged in another task (distraction), child appropriate behavior occurred less frequently than in the other conditions, and child inappropriate behavior occurred 63% of the time. A lack of parental attention and no activity were the most frequent antecedents for inappropriate behavior. Potential positive reinforcers appeared as consequences of inappropriate child behavior 77% of the time. These findings have implications for the development and prevention of serious behavior disorders. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.