Antarctic Treaty Consultative Research Articles

Measuring the performance of Antarctic Treaty decision-making.

Agreements reached at the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCMs) are among the primary means for addressing Antarctic conservation and environmental protection issues. However, according to contemporary scholars, Antarctic Treaty decision-making is becoming increasingly unresponsive to the rising environmental challenges in the region. We assessed the performance of Antarctic Treaty decision-making by measuring the rate and diversity of decision-making over the last 6 decades. To measure the rate, we counted the number of inputs and outputs of ATCMs and calculated the time taken for legally binding outputs to enter into force. To measure diversity, we calculated the range of topics addressed by the inputs and outputs of ATCMs. The average number of agreements reached per ATCM increased from 1961 to 2022. Although the diversity of Antarctic topics discussed at ATCMs remained consistently high, the diversity of topics on which legally binding agreements were adopted declined significantly. Antarctic issues-including those of highest priority-are now almost entirely dealt with through nonbinding, soft-law agreements. It is plausible that this move away from binding decisions reflects a dynamic governance institution evolving to respond to new pressures. However, we suggest that the change reveals a concerning shift in decision-making behavior and performance, unique to the treaty's history. Soft law is beneficial in some cases, but its overuse diminishes accountability and transparency, significantly reducing the parties' abilities to understand and measure their performance, including the outcomes and impacts of decisions. Although the rate and diversity of ATCM inputs and outputs provide only a partial view of decision-making performance, the exploration of these metrics provides a foundation for asking essential questions about the impacts of Antarctic Treaty governance on the region's environmental protection and conservation.

Science advice for international governance – An evidence-based perspective on the role of SCAR in the Antarctic Treaty System

Knowledge brokers are essential for science-based international governance. Recently, the objectivity of the Antarctic Treaty System’s (ATS) primary knowledge broker, the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), has been questioned, both in discussions at ATS meetings and now in a recent published perspective. Much of the concern is based on a misunderstanding of SCAR’s history, structure and internal operations, and of its interactions with the ATS, in particular at Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCMs). Articulation of these concerns provides a useful basis for an examination of science-based advice in an international governance system founded on peace and science. Therefore, this study provides an evidence-based assessment of SCAR’s operations and history with respect to its interactions with the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties (ATCPs). It shows that the dangers of lack of objectivity by SCAR, or its politicization by one or more of its Members have long been recognised by SCAR, and that SCAR has policies and procedures that are specifically designed to preclude this happening, as might be expected from a reliable international knowledge broker. Evidence-based clarification of SCAR’s interactions with the ATCPs demonstrate that no evidence exists of bias to SCAR’s advice to ATCMs throughout its history. This study therefore shows that concerns about lack of objectivity do not reflect any systematic problems within SCAR. Rather, the study shows they reflect insufficient appreciation of the way in which SCAR acts as a reliable knowledge broker in the ATS. The assessment provides a useful overview of best practice in science-based advice for international governance.

Survey of a snow petrel nesting site in a remote high mountain region to inform designation of an Antarctic Specially Protected Area

Despite the sensitivity of ecosystems in extreme conditions, only 0.029% of the Antarctic continent is currently granted special protection as Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA). Additionally, protected areas are unevenly distributed and unrepresentative of the biodiversity of Antarctica. The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties are thus striving to establish a more coherent network of protected areas. In this context, the Otto-von-Gruber-Gebirge was identified as an area highly worthy of protection due to its unique ecosystem including one of the largest snow petrel breeding sites, and relative pristine nature. However, in the process of designation, an update of knowledge, particularly of the population status of snow petrel in the area, was recognized to be needed. This study was aimed at estimating a population census of snow petrel breeding pairs in the Lake Untersee catchment, an important subarea of the potentially protected area. Investigations were severely limited by the remoteness and harsh conditions of the area, enabling only a short fieldwork period with limited resources. Thus, a combination of remote sensing and traditional methods was applied. We conducted a ground survey of a smaller reference area, including locating nest sites and assessing nest site characteristics. Snow petrels usually nest in the cavities of large boulders and we thus classified habitat suitability based on boulder presence. To do so, the study area was remotely surveyed by unpiloted aerial vehicles to gain orthophotomosaics in sufficient resolution to distinguish on-ground conditions for breeding. We then calculated nest site densities for the reference area. We also studied nest site data such as nest cavity depth, orientation, and attendance to gain basic knowledge of the characteristics of the breeding site. Finally, we measured a sample of four live snow petrels to determine which morph was present at the site. We were able to obtain nest site data and to extrapolate it, which produced population numbers of 11,765 breeding pairs for the whole study area. This underpins the size of the breeding site and thereby its importance for the species.

Taming a 'fuzzy beast'? Stakeholder perspectives on Antarctic science-policy knowledge exchange practices in New Zealand.

Antarctic environmental change is accelerating with significant regional and global consequences making it critically important for Antarctic research knowledge to inform relevant policymaking forums. A key challenge is maximising the utility of evidence in decision-making, to which scholars have responded by shifting away from linear science-policy arrangements towards co-production alternatives. As an Antarctic Treaty Consultative Party (ATCP), New Zealand (NZ) is responsible for facilitating knowledge exchange (KE) among Antarctic science and policy actors at national and international levels. However, at present, we have few metrics for assessing the success of science-policy dialogues. Furthermore, studies on the Antarctic science-policy interface have so far primarily focused on the international perspective. This paper is the first to examine domestic stakeholder perspectives regarding Antarctic KE using NZ as a case study. We report on the findings of two workshops involving over 60 NZ Antarctic stakeholders in 2021 that aimed to explore the various elements of NZ's Antarctic science-policy interface and identify barriers or drivers for success, including future opportunities. Our results indicate that there is a desire to shift away from the current linear approach towards a more collaborative model. To achieve this, stakeholders share an understanding that KE practices need to become more equitable, inclusive and diverse, and that the policy community needs to play a more proactive and leading role. Described as a 'fuzzy beast', the NZ Antarctic science-policy interface is complex. This study contributes to our understanding of Antarctic KE practices by offering new guidance on several key elements that should be considered in any attempts to understand or improve future KE practices in NZ or within the domestic settings of other ATCPs interested in fostering science-policy success.

International law, climate change and the Antarctic Treaty System: re-contemplating governance questions apropos of the mounting challenges

Abstract More than 60 years since it entered into force in 1961, the Antarctic Treaty is experiencing significant challenges. These challenges also affect its associated instruments known as the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS). These are mostly external dynamics that are increasingly challenging the ATS from outside of the Antarctic region. They encompass a spectrum of issues relating to global legal regimes and to what extent they are applicable in the Antarctic context. Climate change appears to be the most significant of these challenges, as the tangible planetary impacts of global warming and the perception of its urgency and seriousness by states have prompted additional challenges to the ATS. The physical changes that continue to be scientifically unveiled in the Antarctic are manifesting severe impacts on a planetary scale, and this fact has underscored the need for broader and more rapid international engagement within the Antarctic governance discourse. Nevertheless, the existing decision-making mechanisms compounded by the adversarial atmosphere within the ATS due to external factors have become challenges of themselves. Such challenges call for the re-contemplation and reassessment of the legal regime of the Antarctic in general, and the ATS in particular, to find ways forward for an otherwise historically effective international legal system. This paper utilizes both scientific and legal lenses to underscore the urgent need to achieve better communication between the ATS generally, the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings specifically and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change regimes and to overcome the multiple barriers that stand in the way of achieving that objective.

The emerging contribution of Türkiye to Antarctic science and policy

AbstractAntarctica is a continent dedicated to ‘peace and science’ and subject to international consensus-based governance through the Antarctic Treaty System. Through the Treaty, decision-making powers are reserved to Consultative Parties, which are those countries recognized as demonstrating ‘substantial scientific research activity’ in Antarctica. Türkiye acceded to the Antarctic Treaty in 1996. In its National Polar Science Program (2018–2022) it first declared a desire to attain consultative status to the Treaty. Here, we examine Türkiye‘s recent development across Antarctic science, policy and logistics. Since 2016, Türkiye’s national Antarctic scientific output has increased threefold, ranking seventh amongst the current 27 non-Consultative Parties, and this output is greater than some Consultative Parties. Türkiye has submitted more papers to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings than any other non-Consultative Party and is actively participating in the development of the Antarctic Protected Area system. To facilitate longer-term research goals, Türkiye is constructing an Antarctic research station (Horseshoe Island, Antarctic Peninsula), has joined several polar organizations, including the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) and the Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP), and has developed scientific and logistical collaborations with many established Antarctic nations. The exceptionally rapid growth of Türkiye's Antarctic activities provides a firm foundation for the development of a future application for consultative status.

Regulating Antarctic Tourism: The Challenge of Consensus-Based Decision Making

AbstractIn the 2022–2023 season, more than 104,000 tourists visited Antarctica. This represents an increase of more than 40 percent compared to the 2019–2020 pre-pandemic season. This Current Development discusses this trend and the limits of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties, which govern on the basis of consensus, in responding with regulatory action. Options for strengthening regulation in this area are also considered.

The Antarctic Stations Status in the Context of Antarctica's Frozen Territorial Claims of the States Parties to the Antarctic Treaty and Applicable National Legislation

The paper analyzes the Russian doctrine of international law and gives a critical assessment of its state, because the problems of Antarctica traditionally belong to international maritime law. However, the author defines the concept of international Antarctic law as an intersectoral international legal institution with a certain independence within the framework of international territorial law. It is noted that the problems of Antarctica have gone beyond the cognitive interest of the academic community, moving into the context of a clash of geopolitical interests among states, which caused the attempts of five states to establish their sovereignty by means of sectoral division. The Antarctic Treaty of 1959 established a notification procedure for the establishment of Antarctic stations, the modern administrative regime is provided by the activities of institutional mechanisms. With about 100 Antarctic stations and bases opened by States, their international legal status remains uncertain. The problem has acquired particular importance because Russian stations are located in the sectors of territorial claims, which generates competitive processes. By concluding bilateral agreements with States that have put forward territorial claims, it is possible to partially neutralize the competition of jurisdictions in certain areas of cooperation. In the documents adopted by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATC), attention is paid only to the problems of the station placement and issues of their verification during inspection activities. In order to fill the gap, the author proposed the definition of the Antarctic station as a legal enclave of the State, which is subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of the founding State and establishes immunity from the jurisdiction of other states. The maintenance and development of Russia’s presence in Antarctica is ensured by Russian Antarctic legislation. In order to develop the Russian expeditionary infrastructure (including Antarctic stations and field bases), it is important to develop and adopt a regulation on the status of the Russian Antarctic station, in connection with which measures to improve legislation are proposed.

Berlin statement on legacy and emerging contaminants in polar regions

Polar regions should be given greater consideration with respect to the monitoring, risk assessment, and management of potentially harmful chemicals, consistent with requirements of the precautionary principle. Protecting the vulnerable polar environments requires (i) raising political and public awareness and (ii) restricting and preventing global emissions of harmful chemicals at their sources. The Berlin Statement is the outcome of an international workshop with representatives of the European Commission, the Arctic Council, the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), environmental specimen banks, and data centers, as well as scientists from various international research institutions. The statement addresses urgent chemical pollution issues in the polar regions and provides recommendations for improving screening, monitoring, risk assessment, research cooperation, and open data sharing to provide environmental policy makers and chemicals management decision-makers with relevant and reliable contaminant data to better protect the polar environments. The consensus reached at the workshop can be summarized in just two words: “Act now!”Specifically, “Act now!” to reduce the presence and impact of anthropogenic chemical pollution in polar regions by.•Establishing participatory co-development frameworks in a permanent multi-disciplinary platform for Arctic-Antarctic collaborations and establishing exchanges between the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program (AMAP) of the Arctic Council and the Antarctic Monitoring and Assessment Program (AnMAP) of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) to increase the visibility and exchange of contaminant data and to support the development of harmonized monitoring programs.•Integrating environmental specimen banking, innovative screening approaches and archiving systems, to provide opportunities for improved assessment of contaminants to protect polar regions.

Ant-ICON - ‘Integrated Science to Inform Antarctic and Southern Ocean Conservation’: a new SCAR Scientific Research Programme

AbstractAntarctic and Southern Ocean environments are facing increasing pressure from multiple threats. The Antarctic Treaty System regularly looks to the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) for the provision of independent and objective advice based on the best available science to support decision-making, policy development and effective environmental management. The recently approved SCAR Scientific Research Programme Ant-ICON - ‘Integrated Science to Inform Antarctic and Southern Ocean Conservation‘ - facilitates and coordinates high-quality transdisciplinary research to inform the conservation and management of Antarctica, the Southern Ocean and the sub-Antarctic in the context of current and future impacts. The work of Ant-ICON focuses on three research themes examining 1) the current state and future projections of Antarctic systems, species and functions, 2) human impacts and sustainability and 3) socio-ecological approaches to Antarctic and Southern Ocean conservation, and one synthesis theme that seeks to facilitate the provision of timely scientific advice to support effective Antarctic conservation. Research outputs will address the most pressing environmental challenges facing Antarctica and offer high-quality science to policy and advisory bodies including the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, the Committee for Environmental Protection and the Scientific Committee of the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources.

Ice-locked huts, snow-buried cairns, and sunken ships: the prevailing discourse on heritage in antarctica

ABSTRACT Cultural heritage in Antarctica simultaneously represents vulnerable historic remains and powerful political resources curated by nation states, for nation states. Political actors transform dilapidated huts, piles of rocks, and submerged ships into opportunities for strategic gain within the practice of Antarctic affairs – but what is the nature of this political discourse? This paper proposes the existence of a prevailing discourse on cultural heritage found in Antarctica comparable to that of Smith’s Authorised Heritage Discourse (the AHD). This discourse embodies how nation states active in the region – the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties – think and talk about heritage in Antarctica, and subsequently determines how this heritage is managed in practice. The first two sections investigate how discourse on Antarctic cultural heritage is situated, and how it has been realised. The third and final section scrutinises the characteristics of the Antarctic discourse in relation to the AHD. Consideration of the situation, realisation, and characterisation of a discourse on Antarctic cultural heritage, produces an in-depth account of the discourse overall. Key findings reveal that this discourse behaves very similarly to pre-existing models for global heritage.

Conservation Law in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean: the Antarctic Treaty System, conservation, and environmental protection

ABSTRACT The Antarctic Treaty System provides the corpus of law that governs the obligations of its Parties to protect and conserve the Antarctic environment. The System consists principally of the Antarctic Treaty (the Treaty), the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CAMLR Convention), and the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (Environmental Protocol). The Antarctic Treaty establishes the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting – the body that makes decisions under the provisions of the Treaty and Environmental Protocol. The CAMLR Convention establishes the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) – its decision-making body. Together, these two international bodies are responsible for the modern-day conservation and environmental management regimes for Antarctica and the Southern Ocean. This paper looks at the scope of law developed under the Antarctic Treaty System and its evolution; and at the interaction between the different components of the Antarctic Treaty System. The paper also forecasts some of the future challenges to conservation and environmental protection in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean.

Diplomatic culture and institutional design: Analyzing sixty years of Antarctic Treaty governance.

Since 1961 the Antarctic Treaty has been acknowledged internationally as the legitimate forum through which decision-making for the region takes place. Membership growth and the establishment of new conventions are strong indicators of how this international regime has overcome challenges to its functioning, while preserving peace maintenance, scientific cooperation and environmental protection as the main pillars of Antarctic governance. For this special volume of Annals of the Brazilian Academy of Science, this work provides an overview of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings' operation, highlighting how they established specific diplomatic practices: the progressive introduction of issues, the avoidance of contentious issues, and "watered-down", ambiguous text, all of which have enabled parties to circumvent conflict and reach consensual agreement. Based on analysis of the Antarctic Treaty Database, this work shows the main practices developed through the Antarctic Treaty and concludes that the adaptability of Treaty Parties to manage challenges over the last 60 years will unquestionably continue to underpin the regime.

Tourism and heritage in Antarctica: exploring cultural, natural and subliminal experiences

ABSTRACT The guidelines on heritage management adopted by the 2018 Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting provide the most recent iteration for an Antarctic tourism sector which had, prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, been projected to increase further with various risks and potential impacts requiring careful management. In this paper the role of cultural heritage for tourism prior to the COVID-19 pandemic is examined through three empirical perspectives. First, how the Antarctic cultural heritage is represented through the designation of Historic Sites and Monuments and Site Guidelines for Visitors; then how this is presented through tourism operators’ websites; and, finally, how it is experienced by visitors as narrated in open-source social media information. Each dataset suggests that, while cultural heritage is an important component of an increasingly commodified tourist offering, it is only part of an assemblage of elements which combine to create a subliminal and largely intangible Antarctic experience. In particular, a polarization of the heritage experience between cultural and natural does not appear productive. The paper proposes a more nuanced understanding of heritage tourism in Antarctica which accommodates the notion of a hybrid experience that integrates cultural heritage, the history and stories this heritage represents, and the natural environmental setting.

The Déjà vu System of International Trusteeship in Continental Antarctica: A Textual Analysis

In the name of environmental protection, the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting seems to have borrowed the paradigm of international trusteeship of the United Nations for managing the Antarctic land-based protected areas. By comparing and analysing the critical questions highly concerned, this paper offers preliminary thoughts on the development and refinement of the conception of land-based protected areas as a déjà vu system of international trusteeship and its surrounding legal applications and implications in continental Antarctica, and challenges the direction followed by this system in protecting Antarctic intrinsic values in legal discourse.

The Antarctic treaty and the evolution of its institutional mechanisms

INTRODUCTION. The article dwells on the issue of evolution of mechanism created to manage the Antarctic region: Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM) and Committee on Environmental Protection (CEP). In the paper the main stages of the development of an ATCM as a main “political” body within the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) are analysed.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The article is based on the analysis of the founding documents of the mentioned bodies – Antarctic Treaty of 1959 and Madrid Protocol to it of 1991, as well as the Rules of Procedure of the said bodies. Moreover, functioning of ATCM and CEP is compared to that of the other organs of the ATS – CCAMLR and its Scientific Committee.RESEARCH RESULTS. The author comes to a conclusion that the Consultative Parties throughout the existence of ATCM managed to effectively use the flexibility built in the Antarctic Treaty by adjusting ATCM to the particular challenges that the they were facing. The efficiency of such an approach is illustrated by the examples of the other organs of the ATS. In particular, the similarities between pairs of ATCM-CEP and CCAMLR - Scientific committee of CCAMLR are demonstrated.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. The analysis and classification of ATCM variations as well as of the other fora under the ATCMs has been comprehensively analysed in Russia last in 2002. With regard to this the tendency of attributing more power to CEP is highlighted. In recent time, this is done to the detriment of the ATCM functioning, when its role is sometimes diminished to only approving decisions taken by the CEP. As a conclusion the opinion is expressed that the attempts to politicise the process and manipulate the statuses of different ATS bodies is counterproductive.

“Logrolling” in Antarctic governance: Limits and opportunities

AbstractThe Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) is considered a successful example of international governance as it has managed tensions over sovereignty claims, avoided militarisation and dealt with marine resources and environmental protection. Recently, China’s influence and assertiveness in many international institutions have significantly grown. What effect this shift in the international politics will have upon Antarctic governance remains to be seen. However, to further thinking on this issue we explore two current case studies that reveal pressure points within the ATS. First, in the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, Australia has proposed marine protected areas off East Antarctica, to which China and several other states have objected. Second, in the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings, China has proposed special management arrangements for the area around the “Kunlun” station, to which Australia and several other states have objected. Negotiation theory suggests “logrolling” (i.e. trade of mutual decision-making support across issue areas) can be an effective strategy to avoid diplomatic deadlocks. We therefore consider the merits of a logrolling strategy for the above issues. We find that while a logrolling strategy in the ATS might facilitate short-term diplomatic success, it would carry significant risks, including the weakening of existing norms.

Antarctic governance of biological resources: the Argentine White Genome project

ABSTRACT The purpose of the Antarctic Treaty is to ensure the peaceful use and demilitarisation of the vast Antarctic continent, as well as the corresponding suspension of territorial claims in the region. Aside from managing relations among individual states, the Treaty also encourages scientific collaboration and requires certain kinds of information exchange with a view to reducing the potential for conflicts. A challenge has arisen, however, since the turn of this century, with the increasing search, collection, study, and possible industrial application of biological resources, called bioprospecting. This has become one of the most debated topics at the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings. Although bioprospecting is a scientific activity with peaceful and commercial aims, it nonetheless generates disagreements and controversy among participating states across a range of issues, including the access and ownership of genetic resources, scientific information exchange, environmental impact, and the resulting distribution of monetary benefits among actors. This uncertainty leads to the question: can bioprospecting projects be adapted to the principles of Antarctic governance? This study aims to answer that question through an analysis of the ‘Genoma Blanco’ (White Genome) project supported by the Argentine government some years ago. Argentina’s approach to the project combined adherence to national sovereignty principles and compliance with Antarctic governance requirements, thus constituting a singular case within the context of legal ambiguity in which the Treaty still navigates in relation to bioprospecting activities. On the one hand, Argentina supported policies of transparency, providing information about Genoma Blanco activities and discoveries to other Treaty members. On the other hand, it maintained its principles of sovereignty by asserting ownership over resources found and by using research findings as part of its strategic discourse tools towards legitimising Argentina’s permanence in the sector under its own sovereignty claims.

Statement of Removal

ABSTRACTThe Question of Antarctica, put forward by the Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamed, raised eyebrows amongst the member states of the Antarctic Treaty in 1982. The criticism, which challenged many aspects of the way Antarctica was governed during that time, was accepted as an agenda item of the 38th United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) in 1983. This paper aims to discuss the evolution of the Malaysian outlook on Antarctica, which began antagonistically, but eventually joined the system it had previously criticised. Malaysia makes an interesting case study due to not only its non-claimant and non-member status, but also because it is a tropical country, with good relative distance from the South Pole and seemingly no justification for ‘interference’ in Antarctic matters in the 1980s. The paper will discuss Malaysia’s evolution from being the strongest critic of the Antarctic Treaty in 1983 to that of a state working towards becoming an Antarctic Treaty Consultative Party (ATCP). Besides that, it will also study possible future scenarios for Malaysia’s engagement in Antarctic matters.

Education and outreach by the Antarctic Treaty Parties, Observers and Experts under the framework of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings

AbstractThe development of formal discourse about education and outreach within the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM), and the influence of major international activities in this field, are described. This study reflects on the ATCM Parties’ approach to implementing the ambition of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty Article 6.1.a, to promote the educational value of Antarctica and its environment, and examines the role of workshops and expert groups within the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and the Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programmes. These early initiatives, which emerged in the 1990s, were a prelude to the development and implementation of a large number of International Polar Year (IPY) education and outreach programmes. The establishment of an Antarctic Treaty System Intersessional Contact Group, and an online forum on education and outreach during the 2015 ATCM in Bulgaria, is a legacy of IPY and is the next step in fostering collaboration to engage people around the world in the importance and relevance of Antarctica to our daily lives.