Antarctic Penguin Species Research Articles

Vertebral formula and numerical variations in the spine of the Antarctic and southern South American penguins (Aves: Sphenisciformes)

Abstract The vertebral column in tetrapods consists of several constant regions, namely the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and caudal regions. Each of these regions is characterized by a specific number of vertebrae, contributing to the overall vertebral formula. Supernumerary and/or missing vertebrae have only been sporadically mentioned for penguins, and the specific vertebral formula is only determined for some non-passeres orders. Variations in the anatomy and vertebral number of South American and Antarctic penguin species are evaluated here. Sixty-six specimens of Aptenodytes forsteri, Pygoscelis adeliae, P. antarcticus, P. papua, Spheniscus magellanicus, and Eudyptes chrysocome were examined to establish the vertebral formula for six South American and Antarctic species, reporting the type and frequency of the variations found in the generalized configuration. We found no intraspecific variation in respect of the number of cervical as well as cervicothoracic vertebrae in all penguin species studied. Intra- and interspecific variation occur in the thoracic, synsacral, and caudal regions comprising 6–7, 13–14 and 5–8 vertebrae, respectively. Particularly, the variations were found in the transitional zones between one region and another and/or between synsacral segments.

Penguin Dynamics Along the West Antarctic Peninsula

This activity incorporates the use of real scientific data to explore ecosystem dynamics among three Antarctic penguin species. Students will analyze two Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) data sets and supporting graphics to cause and effect and feedback relationships driving changes observed in Adelie, Chinstrap, and Gentoo penguins between 1975 and 2010 along the West Antarctic Peninsula. The penguin population datasets were collected from the Palmer Station Study region, which is part of the Long-Term Ecological Research program. The LTER program began in 1974 and has been collecting annual data in this region (as well as numerous other regions in Antarctica) on a variety of ecological interactions.

The first skull of Anthropornis grandis (Aves, Sphenisciformes) associated with postcranial elements

Associated penguin remains found in Bartonian levels of the Submeseta Formation (Seymour Island, Antarctica), including cranium and mandible, both partial tarsometatarsi, and some other fragmentary bones, are analyzed here. This specimen preserves the first cranium reliably assigned to the giant form Anthropornis grandis, and constitutes the first opportunity to taxonomically assign a cranial material to any of the Antarctic penguin species. A discussion of the diet preferences and feeding mechanisms of A. grandis is supported here by three-dimensional paleoneurological and cranial-jaw muscular reconstructions. We propose that A. grandis was a penguin with a voluminous musculature strongly attached to the neck and skull, adapted to chase and hunt fish during diving.

Application of very high resolution remote sensing data in studies of Antarctic penguins and greenhouse gases: A review

Antarctic penguins are ″bio-indicators″ of environmental change in the Southern Ocean. The abundance of nutrients such as carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) in their excreta promotes the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs), which makes penguin colonies an important source of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. Since the 15th Chinese Antarctica research expedition, studies have been conducted via field observations and laboratory incubation experiments to determine the soil nutrient content in typical penguin colonies, and GHG production and emissions in these regions. These studies have indicated that the deposition of large amounts of penguin guano strongly influences the physical and chemical properties of soils in the Antarctic and creates favorable conditions for the production of CH4 and N2O in the soils and their subsequent emission. These studies have also shown that penguin activity significantly promotes CH4 and N2O emissions when compared with sites such as tundra ecosystems where penguins are absent. However, due to the lack of penguin population data, the total GHG emissions from penguin colonies at the regional and even circum-Antarctic scale have not been estimated. With the development of remote sensing technology, penguin colonies and their population changes have been identified by satellite images since the 1980s. In recent years, with the application of very high resolution (VHR) satellite images and aerial photographs, the identification of penguin populations at the regional scale has gradually been established. Based on previous research, this study comprehensively analyzed GHG emissions from penguins via field observations and laboratory incubation experiments, and introduced a method to estimate GHG emissions from penguin colonies via parameters such as guano deposition rates, CH4 and N2O emission factors, and penguin populations. This study also summarized the satellite data-based population estimations of five Antarctic penguin species: Adelie ( Pygoscelis adeliae ), Chinstrap ( Pygoscelis Antarctica ), Gentoo ( Pygoscelis papua ), emperor ( Aptenodytes forsteri ), and Macaroni ( Eudyptes chrysolophus ). Taking Adelie penguin as an example, Antarctic penguin colonies were investigated by considering the relationship between penguin guano areas and the number of breeding pairs, which determined a global total Adelie penguin population of 3.79 million breeding pairs. Some studies have shown that Adelie penguin populations have been declining rapidly on the islands of the northern Antarctic Peninsula, but have been increasing in the southern Antarctic Peninsula and the Ross Sea regions. The factors driving penguin populations were studied in terms of the physical and biological changes in the penguins′ environment, including changes in sea-ice conditions (concentration, extent, and thickness), air temperature, wind speed, and sea surface temperature, all of which are likely to limit the abundance of Adelie penguins. Competition for food resources such as Antarctic krill ( Euphausia superba ) and continuous changes in the abundance of these resources also impacts on the number and density of Adelie penguins. Some of the factors that influence penguin population changes were discussed, including environmental factors (sea surface temperature, sea ice area, and Chlorophyll a concentration), human activities (the tourism and fishing industries), and other factors (food sources, volcanic eruptions, and iceberg calving). VHR remote sensing data-based estimations of penguin populations and GHG emissions will become a research focus in the field of polar ecology, and synthesizes the disciplines of remote sensing, biology, soil science, ecology, and geography.

Reproductive effort affects oxidative status and stress in an Antarctic penguin species: An experimental study

The oxidative cost of reproduction has been a matter of debate in recent years presumably because of the lack of proper experimental studies. Based on the hypothesis that different brood sizes produce differential reproductive costs, an experimental manipulation during breeding of Adélie penguins was conducted at Hope Bay, Antarctica, to study oxidative status and stress. We predict that a lower reproductive effort should be positively related to low oxidative and physiological stress. We randomly assigned nests with two chicks to a control reproductive effort group (CRE), and by removing one chick from some nests with two chicks, formed a second, low reproductive effort group (LRE). We examined how oxidative status in blood plasma (reactive oxygen metabolites, ROMs, and total antioxidant capacity, OXY) and stress (heterophil/lymphocyte ratio, H/L) responded to a lower production of offspring total biomass. Our nest manipulation showed significant differences in offspring total biomass, which was lower in the LRE group. As predicted, the LRE group had higher antioxidant capacity than individuals in the CRE group. We have also found, although marginally significant, interactions between sex and treatment in the three variables analysed. Females had higher OXY, lower ROMs and lower H/L ratio when rearing one chick, whereas males did so when rearing two except for OXY which was high regardless of treatment. Moreover, there was a significant negative correlation between the H/L ratio and OXY in females. Finally, we have found a negative and significant relationship between the duration of the experiment and OXY and ROMs and positive with H/L ratio which suggests that indeed breeding penguins are paying an effort in physiological terms in relation to the duration of the chick rearing. In conclusion, a reduction of the reproductive effort decreased oxidative stress in this long-lived bird meaning that a link exists between breeding effort and oxidative stress. However, our findings suggest different sex strategies which results in opposite physiological responses presumably depending on different life-history strategies in males and females.

Isolation of Campylobacter spp. from Three Species of Antarctic Penguins in Different Geographic Locations.

The presence of Campylobacter species was studied in three Antarctic penguin species, Adélie (Pygoscelis adeliae), chinstrap (Pygoscelis antarctica) and gentoo (Pygoscelis papua). A total of 390 penguins were captured in 12 different rookeries along the Antarctic Peninsula with differences in the amount of human visitation: six colonies were highly visited [Stranger Point, King George Island (P. papua and P. adeliae); Hannah Point, Livingston Island (P. papua and P. antarctica); Deception Island (P. antarctica); and Paradise Bay, Antarctic Peninsula (P. papua)], and six colonies were rarely visited [Devil's Point, Byers Peninsula, Livingston Island (P. papua); Cierva Cove, Antarctic Peninsula (P. papua); Rongé Island (P. papua and P. antarctica); Yalour Island (P. adeliae); and Avian Island (P. adeliae)]. A total of 23 strains were isolated from penguins from nine different rookeries. Campylobacter lari subsp. lari was isolated from eight samples (seven from P. papua and one from P. adeliae); C. lari subsp. concheus from 13 (ten from P. adeliae and three from P. antarctica) and C. volucris from two samples (both from P. papua). We did not find any significant differences in the prevalence of Campylobacter spp. between the populations in highly and rarely visited areas. This is the first report of C. lari subsp. concheus and C. volucris isolation from penguins in the Antarctic region.

Erythrocytic abnormalities in three Antarctic penguin species along the Antarctic Peninsula: biomonitoring of genomic damage

Pollutants and toxic contaminants produced in all parts of the world are transported to remote regions including Antarctica. Tourism, research, and fishing activities on this continent are another source of contamination. Toxic substances affect Antarctic species, and some produced genomic damage to the fauna. The genetic damage can be detected by microscopic observation of erythrocytic nuclear abnormalities (ENAs). We counted the number of ENAs in seven populations of three Pygoscelid penguin species, Adélie (Pygoscelis adeliae), Chinstrap (Pygoscelis antarctica), and Gentoo (Pygoscelis papua), and found important differences among species exposed to the same conditions. ENAs were more frequent in Adélie penguins than in the other two species. Inter-population comparisons within species showed remarkable differences in Adélie and Chinstrap penguins but not in Gentoo penguin. Frequency of ENAs in Adélie penguins was the highest in Yalour Island population, intermediate in King George Island population, and the lowest in Torgersen Island and Avian Island populations. In Chinstrap penguins, the highest number of ENAs was found on Deception Island, and significant differences were found only between Deception Island and King George Island populations. This information will provide baseline data to be used for assessing the evolution of genomic damage of penguins along the Antarctic Peninsula in the future.

Haematological values of three Antarctic penguins: gentoo (Pygoscelis papua), Adélie (P. adeliae) and chinstrap (P. antarcticus)

It is established that haematological and biochemical parameters provide important data to assess the physiological condition and health status of wild birds. To undertake conservation physiology or ecophysiology work, it is therefore essential to establish baseline physiological parameters and how these parameters change with age and life history events. In this work, we determined and compared baseline haematology and serum biochemistry between adults and chicks of three Antarctic penguin species of the genus Pygoscelis : gentoo ( P. papua ), Adelie ( P. adeliae ) and chinstrap ( P. antarcticus ). Differences in adults among species were observed in haemoglobin and biochemical parameters such as total proteins, glucose and alkaline phosphatase activity. In addition, differences between adults and chicks in haematocrit, haemoglobin, total proteins and glucose concentration were determined. Moreover, we evaluated the electrophoretic protein profiles between adults and chicks of the genus Pygoscelis , and a conserved protein pattern was observed among species and ages in the genus. Altogether, the results suggest that biochemical and haematological differences among pygoscelids may be related to the nutritional status and energetic expenditure during breeding as well as their feeding habits and development stage. Keywords : Antarctic; haematology; physiology; Pygoscelis ; penguins; serum biochemistry. (Published: 15 June 2015) Citation: Polar Research 2015, 34 , 25718, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v34.25718

Infectious diseases of Antarctic penguins: current status and future threats

Until roughly 200 years ago, the Antarctic was untouched by humankind. With ratification of the Antarctic Treaty in 1961, this region was set aside forever for peaceful purposes and as a science preserve. However, Antarctic national programs and tourism activities are growing, increasing the risks of introduction of infectious diseases into wildlife within the Antarctic Treaty area. The immunological naivete of Antarctic species makes them vulnerable to pathogen’s commonplace in other parts of the world. We review past disease investigations of Antarctic penguins, and outline potential drivers of future disease emergence. Efforts to establish the nature of disease agents in Antarctic penguins, although ongoing since the late 1950s, remain not only patchy and limited in scope but are a lower priority issue for the majority of Antarctic Treaty parties. Pollution, increased connectivity, and global environmental change affecting pathogens and vectors at high latitudes are likely to drive future disease emergence in this region. However, a coordinated plan for disease emergence monitoring is lacking with no formally established programs in place, and surveillance is currently left up to individual interested research groups. We propose possible steps toward the goal of establishing baseline data and tracking infectious diseases in Antarctic penguin species, with the anticipated further increase in human activity and environmental changes in the Antarctic in mind.

Apparent absence ofCryptosporidium, GiardiaandToxoplasma gondiiin three species of penguins along the Antarctic Peninsula

AbstractWe carried out a study to investigate the presence of some protozoan parasites (Cryptosporidiumsp.,Giardiasp.,Toxoplasma gondii) on three species of Antarctic penguins: Adélie (Pygoscelis adeliae), gentoo (Pygoscelis papua) and chinstrap (Pygoscelis antarctica) from different locations along the Antarctic Peninsula and the South Shetland Islands. Swabs and faeces samples were analysed by PCR assay forCryptosporidiumsp. andGiardiasp. whileToxoplasmawas studied using serological methods from blood samples. We did not detect the presence of these organisms in the species studied. However, based on the upper values of the confidence intervals of the observed prevalence, their presence cannot be completely excluded.

Trace and toxic elements in three species of Antarctic penguins: A preliminary research

Trace and toxic elements in three species of Antarctic penguins: A preliminary research

Population variability in heat shock proteins among three Antarctic penguin species

Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are synthesised under stressful conditions such as exposure to elevated temperatures, contamination, free radicals, UV light or pathophysiological states resulting from parasites and/or pathogens. HSPs function to protect cells by means of modulation of protein folding. In Antarctica, these proteins have been studied in such organisms as protozoa and fishes, without attention to geographical variation. We studied the variation of HSP70 and HSP60 levels in Gentoo, Adelie and Chinstrap penguins among different populations along the Antarctic Peninsula from King George Island (62°15′S) to Avian Island (67°46′S). Our results show that the northern population of Gentoo penguin showed higher levels of HSP70 and HSP60 than the southern population. High temperature, human impact and immunity as a proxy for parasites and diseases in northern locations could explain such variation. Adelie penguin only showed significant geographical variation in HSP70, increasing north to south, a pattern perhaps related to increased UV radiation and decreased temperatures from north to south. Chinstrap penguin shows no population differences in the variation in neither HSP70 nor HSP60, although HSP70 showed marginally significant differences. Sexual differences in the level of these proteins are also discussed.

Geographic variation in the immunoglobulin levels in pygoscelid penguins

Antarctic organisms, including penguins, are susceptible to parasites and pathogens. Effects of infestation could differ in different locations along a geographical gradient from north to south consistent with conditions that affect the prevalence and virulence of parasites and pathogens. The immune system, including immunoglobulins as the main component of the humoral immune response, is the major way by which organisms confront infestation. We investigated the variation in immunoglobulin levels in three species of antarctic penguins (Pygoscelis antarctica, Pygoscelis papua, and Pygoscelis adeliae) along a geographical gradient from King George Island (62°15′S) to Avian Island (67°46′S). We found that immunoglobulin levels increased northwards in all the three species. This could indicate a higher impact of parasites and/or pathogens relative to the existing gradient in temperatures along this coast. Changing temperatures, consistent with global climate change, could be altering the ecology of parasite or pathogen infestation within the biota of northern Antarctica. We have also found marginal differences in immunoglobulin levels between sexes in both chinstrap and gentoo penguins.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers, polychlorinated dibenzo-dioxins,-furans, and-biphenyls in three species of antarctic penguins

Fish-eating seabirds are recognized to be at risk of accumulating toxic contaminants due to their high position in the trophic web and to their low ability to metabolize xenobiotic compounds. Penguins are widely distributed in Antarctica and represent an important fraction of the Antarctic biomass. They feed mainly on krill and, depending on krill availability, also on fish. It has been reported that predators may be a sink for volatile and toxic chemicals and this may pose a serious environmental problem. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated dibenzo-dioxins (PCDDs), -furans (PCDFs), and -biphenyls (PCBs), including non-ortho congeners, hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and p,p'-DDE, were quantified in three species of Antarctic Pygoscelids in order to evaluate their accumulation patterns. The potential toxicity of twenty-two dioxin-like congeners was assessed and expressed as 2,3,7,8-tetraCDD equivalents (TEQs). Differences between males and females were investigated. Blood samples of the Adélie penguin Pygoscelis adeliae, Chinstrap penguin Pygoscelis antarctica and Gentoo penguin Pygoscelis papua were collected at Admiralty Bay, King George Is (62 degrees 10'39" S, 58 degrees 26'46" W) in February 2004. Halogenated hydrocarbons were identified and quantified using gas chromatography coupled with gas chromatography mass spectrometry analyses. Results are expressed on a wet weight basis. HCB, p,p'-DDE and sigmaPCBs were higher in Adélie penguins (6.7 +/- 6.1, 8.2 +/- 3.3 and 9.8 +/- 3.8 ng/g, respectively) than in Chinstrap and Gentoo penguins, both of which showed values in the same order of magnitude, but approximately 40% lower than Adélie penguins. Hexa-CBs ranged 35-45% of the residue. Low-chlorinated PCBs (nos. 70+76+95+ 56+60+101) accounted for 40-60% in the three species. PCB101 made up 15% of the residue in Adélie penguins. PBDEs were 291 +/- 477, 107 +/- 104 and 116 +/- 108 pg/g in Adélie, Chinstrap and Gentoo penguins, respectively; the most abundant congeners were BDE47 in Adélie and Chinstrap penguins and BDE17 in Gentoo penguins. PCDDs were 22 +/- 32, 6.5 +/- 7.4 and 18 +/- 23 pg/g in Adélie, Chinstrap and Gentoo penguins, respectively. PCDFs were higher in Adélie penguins and lower in Chinstrap penguins. PCDDs/Fs and PBDEs were higher in males than in females of Gentoo and Chinstrap penguins; differences in concentrations were likely related to the partial detoxification that occurs in females during egg formation. Of the four non-ortho PCBs measured, PCB126 occurred at the highest concentrations and contributed the majority of the non-ortho PCB-TEQ in Gentoo and Chinstrap penguins. The highest TEQs were found in the Gentoo penguin and due mainly to PCDDs and non-ortho PCBs. POP concentrations in penguins were lower than those found in seabird species from other areas of the world. Different chemical accumulation patterns were observed in relation to species and sex; the Adélie penguin showed the highest POP levels. Dissimilar ecological or metabolic features may be involved; the diverse timing of reproduction steps can be responsible for those differences; moreover, Adélie penguins feed on krill (a fatty resource) more abundantly than the other two species during the rearing period. The South Shetland Islands might be subjected to a higher chemical impact with respect to the rest of Antarctica, due to their being near South America. Because penguins are fish-eating birds showing low detoxifying capacities and key-species in Antarctic ecosystems, further studies on their xenobiotic metabolism should be carried out.

Acid-Base Balance in Three Species of Antarctic Penguins Exposed to Thermal Stress

Antarctic penguins occasionally encounter intense solar radiation while in the rookery. Heat dissipation can become a problem for brooding adults, and panting is necessary sometimes for long periods of time. This study has quantitatively examined changes in blood gases and acid-base balance in three species of penguins as a result of thermal loads. The species were Adelie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae), chinstrap penguins (P. antarctica), and gentoo penguins (P. papua). During moderate heat loads body temperature increased and panting began but arterial and venous pH, $P_{CO_{2}}$, and $P_{O_{2}}$ remained within the normal range. Under high heat stress the panting rate reached a maximum and severe respiratory alkalosis resulted. The gentoo penguins were observed to better tolerate thermal challenges than the other two species. Differences between the in vitro and in vivo blood buffer slopes were also noted between the species.