This article reappraises brain function by reconsidering the role of cerebral fluid dynamics in cognition. Tracing a lineage from early modern thinkers like Descartes-who invoked hydraulic metaphors and 'animal spirits'-to J.C. Bose's pioneering studies on electro-mechanical plant physiology, and culminating in contemporary findings on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), extracellular space (ECS), and neurovascular coupling, we reveal a forgotten yet vital computational substrate. We argue that alongside the well-studied digital operations of neural circuits exists a slower, analog, evolutionarily older layer of electrofluidic computation. This system-comprised of ionic diffusion, convective CSF flow, and vascular modulation-not only supports but dynamically shapes neural activity. The brain emerges as an electromechanical ecology of electric pulses and fluid flows, where the mind is both a pattern of neural activity and a choreography of fluid flows.

This study investigates the relationship between animistic beliefs and environmentalism in an upland rural barangay in Dolores, Quezon, Philippines. Using a quantitative design with descriptive and correlational methods, the research examined 265 adult residents selected through random sampling. The study explored four key areas: (1) the demographic profile of respondents; (2) the prevalence of animistic customs and practices; (3) the attribution of animistic essence to objects; and (4) levels of environmentalism. Statistical analyses, including Spearman and point-biserial correlations, assessed relationships among these variables. Results revealed that demographic factors—particularly age and education—significantly influence environmental behavior. Moreover, while certain animistic practices were negatively correlated with environmentalism, the attribution of essence to natural elements (specifically animals and plants) showed strong positive correlations with environmental concern and action. These findings suggest a nuanced dynamic: while some traditional beliefs may not directly support conservation, animistic worldviews that emphasize the sentience and personhood of nature can foster environmental responsibility. The study underscores the potential for culturally grounded advocacy and the importance of integrating indigenous perspectives into sustainability efforts. Consequently, all three null hypotheses were rejected.

Shamanic music constitutes the deepest stratum of organised sound in Chinese civilisation. Emerging from Neolithic animistic beliefs that attributed spirit to every phenomenon, it developed into a sophisticated sonic technology for mediating between human society and the unseen world. This paper traces the trajectory of shamanic music from the earliest bone flutes of the seventh millennium BCE through its partial institutionalisation in Shang and Zhou state sacrifice, and its subsequent marginalisation and survival in folk and non-Han traditions. By synthesising archaeological data, oracle-bone and bronze inscriptions, transmitted literary sources such as the Shiji, Shanhaijing, Zhouli, and Chuci, and comparative evidence from living Manchu, Daur, and Hezhe shamanic performances, the study demonstrates that shamanic music functioned simultaneously as psychological technology for trance induction, social mechanism for group cohesion, and cosmological instrument for maintaining universal harmony. Particular attention is devoted to the pentatonic foundation, rhythmic incantation patterns, symbolic instrumentation, and the multisensory nature of performance. The analysis reveals that many features regarded as quintessentially “Chinese” in later court and literati music—most notably the five-tone scale and the conception of music as regulator of qi—originated in shamanic practice long before Confucian systematisation.

Most primitive religions originated from the devout worship of celestial deities, earthly spirits, and ghosts. In oracle bone inscriptions, rituals related to praying for rain, temple worship, river deity worship, and the worship of great deities were referred to as “fang” 方 or “yi fang” 以方. The Supreme God was the paramount deity of the Yin Shang Dynasty people; by the early Zhou Dynasty, the Supreme God and ancestral spirits began to merge. The hexagram of Contemplation 觀卦 (guan gua) establishes instruction through the concept of “contemplation” fully presenting the entire process of shamans, sorcerers, or ritual hosts participating in temple sacrifices, and completing the hand-washing ritual 盥 (guan) and the sacrifice-offering ritual 薦 (jian). It emphasizes the sincere communication between humans and Heaven. When a monarch performs the guan ritual, he embodies inner “sincerity and clarity” 誠明 (chengming); in response, the celestial deities will “show trust” 有孚 (youfu). Thus, it can be verified that deities exist in Heaven, and an interactive, responsive relationship is formed between Heaven and humans. The nine in the fifth place (the dominant line) possesses great inspiring power. The two fundamental dimensions for interpreting the hexagram structure are “the great view is above” 大觀在上 (da guan zai shang) and “[t]hose below look toward him and are transformed” 下觀而化 (xia guan er hua). These dimensions not only highlight the infinite transcendence, charisma, and appeal of the worshipped deities but also underscore humans’ profound reverence and faith in deities and the absolute existence. Sages 聖人 (sheng ren), as intermediaries between humans and deities, established religion for the sake of human life but did not regard themselves as religious leaders. However, from the Shang and Zhou dynasties to the Spring and Autumn period, a transition occurred in the spiritual life of the Chinese people: from shamanism to ritual propriety 禮 (li), and from theistic culture to humanistic culture. This transition laid the fundamental direction for the development and evolution of Chinese culture over the following 2500 years. Confucius attempted to replace or eliminate the shamanistic elements in early Confucians with personalized moral experience and ethical consciousness.

This article explores the complex and multifaceted soul concepts and funerary practices of the Mongols, drawing upon historical sources, folklore, and archaeological findings. It posits that the Mongols traditionally believed in a tripartite soul: a “flesh-and-bone soul“ acting as a guardian, a “life spirit” residing within the body and governing life and age, and an “eternal, immortal soul” with varying names (sünesün, sülde etc) depending on individual characteristics. After death, the immortal soul wanders as a “čidkür“ until a new dwelling, an “onggon“ (a felt, fur, or wooden representation), is created, typically three years after death, to house the soul and ensure its continued benevolence towards the family. This practice is linked to ancestor worship, where the onggon becomes a protective spirit for the family or tribe, blurring the lines between ancestral spirits and deities. The text details various customs surrounding death and burial, including the practice of destroying grave goods. This destruction is interpreted as a means of releasing the “soul“ of the object, allowing it to accompany the deceased into the afterlife. The text also discusses the belief that the afterlife mirrors earthly life, with the deceased continuing their former occupations and requiring the same provisions and social structures. This is reflected in burial practices where the deceased are interred with their belongings, often ritually broken, and even with sacrificed animals and servants. Furthermore, the text examines the concept of “soul separation“, where the soul can temporarily leave the body during sleep or illness, making it vulnerable to evil spirits. It also explores the idea of the soul residing in specific body parts, such as the skull or a bone, influencing burial rituals and the treatment of animal remains. Finally, the text touches upon the influence of Buddhism on Mongolian beliefs about the afterlife, particularly the introduction of hellish realms and the concept of karma. However, it emphasizes that many traditional animistic beliefs and ancestor worship practices persisted alongside Buddhist influences, shaping a unique and syncretic understanding of death and the soul. In essence, the text reveals a rich tapestry of beliefs and practices centered around the soul, death, and the afterlife in Mongolian culture, highlighting the enduring influence of animism, ancestor worship, and the complex interplay between traditional beliefs and later religious influences.

This study documents and analyzes the folk narratives of Boljoon, Cebu, with the aim of examining local folklore, associated beliefs and practices, and the lived experiences and memories of community members. Guided by Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis framework, the research adopts a qualitative approach to identify themes across individual narratives. Data were gathered through in-depth interviews with selected key informants who possess long-standing knowledge of the locality. The findings reveal that folklore in Boljoon functions as a living belief system embedded in everyday life. Several interrelated themes emerged from the analysis, including folklore as a lived and experiential belief system, the coexistence of indigenous animistic beliefs and Catholic faith, folklore as a form of moral and social regulation, continuity and cultural memory, and the interconnected relationship between humans, nature, and the supernatural. These themes demonstrate how folk narratives shape values, guide behavior, and preserve cultural identity. The study also highlights how folklore serves as a medium for intergenerational transmission, allowing continuity of traditions. Narratives related to supernatural beings, religious devotion, agricultural practices, and communal rituals reflect the cultural hybridity and place-based character of Cebuano folklore. Despite its contributions, the study is limited by its small number of participants and its focus on a single community. Future research may expand participant diversity, include younger generations, or conduct comparative studies across other Cebuano communities. Overall, the findings affirmed the importance of localized folklore studies in understanding Cebuano cultural heritage and the continuing relevance of oral traditions in contemporary community life.

Between 1913 and 1942, the Dutch Archaeological Service was responsible for the conservation of cultural heritage in the former Dutch East Indies. For a significant part this concerned Javanese temples from the Buddhist and Hindu era (roughly 700 AD-1550 AD). Although the restoration of temples, and the ways they were presented to the public, were strongly influenced by European views, restoration appeared to be a concern already in the fifteenth century during the heydays of the Hindu Majapahit empire. Old Javanese manuscripts report of the need for restoration as volcanic circumstances and the tropical climate impacted temples from the moment of construction onwards. In the centuries following Majapahit, Buddhist-Hindu and animistic beliefs kept on resonating. Temples and temple ruins gradually became home to the spirits to which people offered, where spirits were worshipped, or where ritualistic meals were held. Official heritage policy often clashed with such practices. For many local people, the maintenance of the spiritual balance seemed even more important than that of the material remains. To better understand the possible tensions between material preservation and (local) meaning, the policy of the Dutch Archaeological Service, will in this article be placed first within the much older tradition of heritage preservation dating back to Majapahit. This will then be contrasted with the actual attitudes and practices towards heritage, as were still common amongst Javanese people in the twentieth century, to finally assess what can be learned from these tensions regarding possible heritage policies for the future.

This paper proposes a Keynesian ‘fourth paradigm’ for American grand strategy to overcome the stalemate between realism, liberalism and constructivism in International Relations. Drawing on close reading of Keynes’s major works, contemporary IR scholarship and recent policy debates, the article combines intellectual history with analytical synthesis to reconstruct Keynes’s international thought and translate it into a coherent strategic framework for the United States in the twenty-first century. The analysis shows that a Keynesian paradigm re-embeds markets within social and political institutions, treats economic stability and full employment as preconditions for durable peace, foregrounds uncertainty and ‘animal spirits’ in state decision-making, and advances a model of managed multilateralism that constrains both surplus and deficit states; it also demonstrates how this perspective exposes and resists the ‘military-narrational complex’ that privileges dramatic war stories over prudential statecraft. The article further finds that a Keynesian grand strategy would orient US policy towards reform of global economic governance, construction of a new embedded liberalism at home and abroad, and a pragmatic, cooperative internationalism that prioritises economic statecraft and narrative scepticism over military dominance. These findings suggest that thinking more like Keynes could help American policymakers design a grand strategy that is both analytically richer and more practically suited to managing great-power rivalry, climate change, financial instability, and populist backlash in a turbulent world.

Abstract This article investigates a religious group in contemporary northeast China. The group is formed by ritual experts and adherents of a traditional folk belief in animal spirits. The group runs as an institution providing aid to those who need psychological treatment, mainly using unorthodox psychological methods and therapies. Most members of this group identify themselves as devout Buddhists. They have developed a series of innovative rituals and generated syncretic teachings combining folk beliefs, vernacular Buddhism, Chinese traditional medicine, and unorthodox psychology. Based on primary fieldwork materials, this research regards this group as a unique religious phenomenon rooted in the particular sociocultural context of contemporary China. The structure and nature of the group is analysed from a folkloristic perspective, according to which the communicative process is highlighted. Two paradigms of the constitution of the group are examined: the network of interaction, and the community of intra-action. This research finds that the group is constituted in the dialogue of the two paradigms, which are unified by the coherence of the vernacular religion experienced by the members in everyday life.

Paleolithic representations of human-animal interaction are rare, with only a few painted or engraved examples recorded in Upper Paleolithic contexts, mostly from Europe. Such scenes, depicting real or imagined interactions, are of major importance for understanding a wide range of past human perspectives, starting with how people conceived of their ontological relationship with the environment and nonhuman beings. In the Early Neolithic in Southwest Asia, shifts in perspective led human communities to manipulate and transform their environment while simultaneously depicting new forms of art featuring human-animal interactions. Here, we describe the recent discovery of the earliest figurine depicting a human-animal interaction-a woman and a goose-from the Late Epipaleolithic (c. 12,000 years cal. BP) village of Nahal Ein Gev II in northern Israel. The artistic techniques and raw materials that were used and the mythological scene that was depicted appear earlier than previous examples, foreshadowing the more monumental changes in symbolic expression that occur in the following Neolithic periods. Through technological, archaeometric, and dermatoglyphic analyses, we demonstrate that this unique figurine was meticulously modeled from clay using innovative techniques that created perspective using form and light. Importantly, the figurine captures a mythological scene between the woman and the goose that is consistent with an animistic belief system. Through our combined multidisciplinary approach, this study provides important original data regarding the antiquity and development of symbolic expression using clay at the end of the Epipaleolithic at a crossroads between early sedentary and fully Neolithic societies in Southwest Asia.

This study analyzes the occurrence of taboo expressions and their translation strategies into Dutch in the movie The Big 4. The research method used in this study is descriptive qualitative method. The analysis in this study uses theories related to the category of taboo expressions from Wardhaugh (2006) and Allan & Burridge (2006), then the theory of translation strategies of taboo expressions from Davoodi (2009). The results show that the categories of taboo expressions that appear the most from 129 data found in The Big 4 movie are animal names (45.7%), body parts (16.3%), sex (10.9%), mental abnormality (9.3%), death (7.8%), excretion (7.8%), and spirits (2.3%). The most common translation strategies applied by the translators are taboo to taboo (75.2%), censorship (14.7%), and substitution (6.2%). This shows the translators' tendency to maintain the emotional effect in the movie.

This study explores the theme “Worship in Spirit and Stream: A Digital Reinterpretation of Psalm 100:1–5 in Nigerian Liturgy.” Psalm 100, a classic hymn of thanksgiving, summons worshippers to “make a joyful noise” (hārîʿû, הָרִיעוּ), “serve the LORD” (ʿibdû, עִבְדוּ), and “enter His gates with thanksgiving” (tôdāh, תּוֹדָה). Traditionally rooted in temple-centered worship, these imperatives are reexamined within Nigeria’s emerging digital liturgical culture shaped by livestreamed services, virtual choirs, and social media-based worship. The paper argues that digital platforms now function as expanded “gates” (šaʿarîm, שְׁעָרִים), enabling access to communal praise beyond physical boundaries. Using exegetical analysis and digital theology, the research demonstrates how the psalm’s call to universal joy and covenantal gratitude aligns with contemporary Nigerian expressions of online worship. It highlights both opportunities—wider inclusion, democratization of liturgy—and challenges such as digital distraction, commodification, and unequal access. Ultimately, the study contends that Psalm 100:1–5 provides a biblical-theological framework for envisioning digital worship as authentic ʿavodah (עֲבוֹדָה, worship/service), fostering a spirituality that is both ancient and innovative. Thus, Nigerian churches are called to embrace digital liturgy not as a departure from tradition but as a Spirit-led continuation of the psalmist’s vision.

It seems as if the relics of the megalithic era will never fade over time. This can be seen from several relics that have distinctive characteristics, especially the relics at the Seputih Site. The Seputih site in Seputih Mayang Village seems to be a witness that there was prehistoric life that can still be seen today. The discovery of sarcophagi and dolmens, which can be seen and examined from a distance, shows that at that time there were already animist beliefs and dynamism, as indicated by the presence of stone tombs and places to worship the spirits of their ancestors. These discoveries from the past are certainly a legacy that must be safeguarded by today's society by preserving these relics as completely as possible. Through this article, we will discuss the efforts of community awareness in preserving the Seputih Mayang site as a cultural heritage from the megalithic period during the 1996-2012 period.

Mass manufacture of non-utilitarian objects, which are informational in essence, is a characteristic feature of the Upper Paleolithic. A unique sample of such items (pendants, beads, decorated diadems, and bracelets) comes from the Yana complex of sites. These items testify to advanced views of identity, held by people of the Eastern Siberian Arctic ~32 ka BP. These views formed a three-level information system («friend or foe» recognition, intra-group distinction, personal identification). A mammoth tusk with representational engraving takes a special place among such items. The drawing appears to be a mnemonic record, possibly with mythological content. Its archaeological context reveals the complex social behavior of the Yana site dwellers, in whose advanced mentality animistic beliefs, specifically the wolf cult, played a special role. Such a cult presupposed the existence of complex collective rites in the form of shamanism. One of those rites is apparently depicted in the engraving on the mammoth tusk. Its composition attests to the knowledge of perspective–one of the earliest instances if this kind. Also, the drawing represents motion, evidencing the artist’s cognitive level and technical skill. Apparently, the evolution of the Upper Paleolithic people’s cognitive capacities passed through certain stages, marked by creative and technical achievements, and documented by artifacts such as the Yana engraving. This representation helps to see the world as viewed through the eyes of ancient hunters inhabiting the Eastern Siberian Arctic.

"Book review of Asensio, Angel: Macroeconomics After the General Theory: Fundamental Uncertainty, Animal Spirits and Shifting Equilibrium in a Competitive Economy" published on 21 Feb 2025 by Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd.

This paper discusses the status of consumer sentiment indicators in macroeconomic forecasting, and argues that economists have been ambivalent between several different interpretations of the cognitive ontology of consumer sentiment: deflationism (motivated by an emphasis on economic fundamentals or rational expectations), doxastic realism (motivated by the ideas of privileged epistemic access and wisdom of the masses), and affective realism (motivated by the idea of animal spirits and willingness to spend as causal forces for the economy). These different psychological interpretations of consumer sentiment are argued to have implications for economic policy and macroeconomic forecasting owing to their contrasting assumptions about the mechanisms by which consumers acquire their views about the economy, and the ways in which their attitudes influence private consumption.

The Bharatiya Janata Party’s (BJP) electoral success in Manipur has been discussed in length. However, scholarly writings often argue about the absence of Hindutva and assert that the states complex political landscape helped the BJP win in Manipur. This article examines how the BJP and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) confronted these complexities to consolidate Hindutva through multiple rhetorics. To explain this, we discuss the politics of revisiting history, appropriating local patriots, and tackling the diametrical ethnonationalism of the three major ethnic groups, Meitei, Nagas, and Kuki-Zo, along ethnoreligious lines while embracing the Meiteis culture and religion. It also examines the attempt to syncretise Sanatana Dharma and Sanamahi revivalism of Meiteis concerning Sangh Parivar’s religious assertion that “animist religion equates Sanatana Dharma.” This is aligned with the experimentation of Vinayak Damodar Savarkar’s classification of ‘Hinduness’ among Meiteis, intensifying politics on indigeneity and violence that manifests Hindutva politics. Most capably, this has been dealt with within the ideological agendas of Hindutva. By confronting these complexities, we argue that Hindutva has consolidated in Manipur, where Hindutva ideologues are unfamiliar.

This paper employs the mixed-frequency Granger causality test, reverse unconstrained mixed-frequency data sampling models, and Chinese data from January 2006 to June 2024 to test the nexus between consumer confidence and the macroeconomy. The results show that changes in the real estate market, GDP, and urban unemployment rate are Granger causes of consumer confidence. In reverse, consumer confidence is a Granger cause of the CPI. Second, GDP and the real estate market (CPI and urban unemployment rate) have a significant positive (negative) impact on consumer confidence, while the conditions of industrial production, interest rate, and stock market do not. Third, the “animal spirits” extracted from consumer confidence cannot lead to noticeable fluctuations in China’s macroeconomy. This suggests that the “animal spirits” will not dominate economic growth, even though they affect the macroeconomy slightly and inevitably. The results are robust after replacing the dependent variable and considering the influence of the global financial crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic.

Based on ethnographic research among the Misings of Assam and the ethnic communities of the Darjeeling Himalayas, the paper seeks to highlight the intricate relationship between Indigenous communities and their natural surroundings maintained through sacred connections of revering the spirits that govern it. It brings forth the notions of healing and care amongst these communities by engaging with practices of spirit worship, which govern the daily lives of these communities. Encounters with hegemonic forms of religious traditions, colonialism, and extractive forms of development regimes have rendered these communities vulnerable and marginalised. Literature also suggests that some of the most affected populations by “climate change” belong to Indigenous communities. In the process, their relationship with immediate natural surroundings has evolved and transformed, but with certain continuities in practices and beliefs. This has also challenged their existing forms of practice and their relationship with nature. Spirit worship has remained an integral part of their lives, playing a critical role in healing and care within a fast-changing world under “development”. Taking these aspects into consideration, throughout the article, we lay out several anecdotes from the Indigenous communities that will tell us about their beliefs and practices that continue to shape their lives.

This paper articulates the bonding between the Adi community with their environment, based on an eco-critical reading of Mamang Dai's The Legends of Pensam where myth, memory and ecological wisdom add to a novel interface over time. It asserts that, in addition to encapsulating indigenous environmental consciousness, Dai's narrative also critiques anthropocentrism by offering a cosmology of all-encompassing reciprocity, reverence and interdependence. Through an analysis of animistic beliefs, oral traditions, and place-based practices, this study focuses on the capacity for nature-informed consciousness to resist cultural erasure and environmental decline, inspired by eco-spiritualism, bioregionalism, and ecofeminism. At the same time, the paper critiques the disruptive forces of modernization, colonial intrusion, and the Anthropocene, which threaten to sever this delicate human-nature bond. Through close textual analysis, supported by Dai’s interviews and critical scholarship, the study demonstrates how The Legends of Pensam engages with pressing ecological concerns while offering a counter-narrative to homogenizing development discourses. By explicating the Adis’ profound intimacy with their land and their resilient cultural memory, the novel bridges traditional ecological wisdom with contemporary environmental thought. Ultimately, this research accentuates how indigenous narratives like Dai’s enrich ecocritical discourse and reaffirm that the survival of human society is inseparable from the vitality of the natural world.