Animal Rabies Research Articles

Efficacy of rabies vaccine with differing antigen payloads on pre and simulated post-exposure prophylaxis in cattle

Rabies is a fatal disease of humans and animals. Over the years various vaccines and vaccination procedures such as pre-and post-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP and PEP) have been used to control the losses incurred due to rabies. Unlike in humans, no firm PrEP and PEP guidelines are available for control of rabies in animals. In this study, healthy cattle calves were vaccinated with either single (PrEP regime) or five doses (simulated PEP regime) of rabies vaccine with a potency of 1.2 IU/dose or 2.7 IU/dose. Vaccine was administered on Day 0, 3, 7, 14 and 28 as per ‘Essen’ regimen. The serum was collected from all the vaccinated cattle on 0, 7, 14, 28 and 60 days post inoculation (dpi) and virus neutralisation antibody (VNA) levels were determined by fluorescent antibody virus neutralisation test (FAVN). The results reveal that vaccination with single dose of 2.7 IU/dose of rabies vaccine induced higher VNA in serum compared with 1.2 IU/dose vaccine. Comparison of serum antibody levels between animals vaccinated with single dose of high antigen payload (2.7 IU/dose) and multiple vaccination with 1.2 IU/dose vaccine showed significantly higher antibody levels in the former at 14, 28 and 60 dpi intervals. From this study, it is concluded that the protective levels of immunity in cattle can be achieved with high antigen payload vaccines with either two or three doses, respectively, in PrEP and simulated PEP programs.

Current threat of rabies in Europe and in the world

Rabies still remains one of the most serious diseases of mankind and poses a serious worldwide public health problem. The introduction of dog vaccination as well as oral vaccination of wildlife in many countries has proved to be an effective method of eradication of rabies in non-flying animals. As a result of these actions many countries have been freed from rabies. However, the illegal movement of pet animals poses a serious risk of reintroducing the virus into the rabies-free area. Although, the prevalence of rabies in humans in Europe is relatively low, half of the world's population lives in endemic areas. A number of international organisations are working together on a global framework for eliminating dog-mediated human rabies.

Appraisal of surveillance of human rabies and animal bites in seven states of India.

The key to understanding the burden of animal bites and rabies lies in accurate and timely data with the help of proper surveillance system across the country. Such a surveillance system needs to be evaluated also for a programmatic purpose. The present study was conducted to appraise the surveillance system of human rabies and animal bites in seven states of India and also to describe the characteristics of human rabies cases in the states. The record-based study was conducted from July to December 2017. The survey team collected information about the surveillance status of human rabies from the infectious diseases hospitals and animal bites from integrated disease surveillance programme (IDSP) offices of the respective states for 2012-2016. At the national level, also number of animal exposures and the human rabies cases were collected from the Central Bureau of Health Intelligence and IDSP and compared for concordance. There was a gross underreporting of human rabies from the states to Government of India, and there was no concordance in the reports of animal bites between the IDSP offices of the states and NCDC, New Delhi, India. There was a gradual decline in the reported cases of human rabies from the states during the 5-year period of 2012-2016, attributable to improvement in the overall rabies postexposure prophylaxis services. The documentation of information of the human rabies cases was poor in the infectious disease hospitals. The surveillance system on human rabies and animal bites in India has to be improved under the national rabies control program to eliminate rabies by the year 2030.

Epidemiological Study of Animal Bites and Rabies in Bandar Astara City in 2017

Epidemiological Study of Animal Bites and Rabies in Bandar Astara City in 2017

A multicentric community survey on animal exposures among humans in India.

Rabies is a 100% fatal disease. There are inadequate data on animal exposures and rabies postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) from community-based field surveys in India. : The main objective of the study is to estimate the incidence of animal exposures (bite, scratch, or lick) in the study population and to describe the rabies PEP among the cases. A descriptive survey was conducted in seven states of India between July and November, 2017. In each state, multistage sampling methodology was followed for selection of district, taluka/tehsil, block, and clusters within the block. The primary sampling unit was a household (HH). A case was a patient with animal exposure (bite, scratch, or lick) in the last 1 year from the date of survey. The animal exposure was categorized based on the WHO guidelines (Category-I, Category-II, and Category-III). The patients with the history of multiple animal exposures any time during the survey period was considered as a single case. A total of 1012 HHs were surveyed covering a population of 4294. 3016 (70.2%) participants were from rural settings and 1278 (29.8%) were living in urban settings. 2181 (50.8%) participants were male and 2113 (49.2%) were female. The annual incidence of animal exposure was 1.26% (confidence interval [CI]: 0.93%-1.59%). The annual incidence in urban setting was 1.33% (0.70 - 1.96) and rural settings were 1.23% (CI: 0.84 - 1.62). Majority (68.5%) of the cases were from rural settings, 61.2% of the cases were in the age group of 15-60 years. Among the 43 cases who had received PEP, 21 had Category-II exposures, of whom 66.7% had completed vaccination with either five doses intramuscular or four doses intradermal route. Similarly, 22 had Category-III exposures and only 4 (18.2%) cases had received rabies immunoglobulin and completed rabies vaccination. Six ( 11.1%) cases did not receive PEP. There was no report of human rabies case. The incidence of animal exposure was 1.26%. Rabies PEP in the cases was not satisfactory.

Identifying opportunities to improve the effectiveness in rabies control in Thailand using geographical analysis

Event Abstract Back to Event Identifying opportunities to improve the effectiveness in rabies control in Thailand using geographical analysis Kaushi S. Kanankege1*, Anuwat Wiratsudakul2, Ong-Orn Prasarnphanich3, Phrusamon Wongnak4, Chakchalat Yoopatthanawon4, Julio Alvarez5, Kaylee Errecaborde1 and Andres M. Perez1 1 University of Minnesota Twin Cities, United States 2 Mahidol University, Thailand 3 Thailand Ministry of Public Health-U.S. Ceneter for Disease Control and Prevention Collaboration, Thailand 4 Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Thailand 5 Centro de Vigilancia Sanitaria Veterinaria (VISAVET) and Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense, Spain Despite immense efforts, rabies remains an endemic and neglected zoonotic disease in Asia and Africa, including Thailand. To evaluate and improve the effectiveness of control programs, it is imperative for policymakers and program managers alike to understand the spatiotemporal patterns of rabies spread in relation to underlying risk factors. Here, we generated rabies risk maps for Thailand using Bayesian spatial regression. Major risk factors associated with dog-mediated rabies were identified through published literature, and the relevant data were collected using publicly available and government institutional data sources. A linear regression model was used to investigate the association between the potential risk of rabies and available covariates at the sub-district level. To represent the potential risk of rabies at the sub-district level, both human and animal rabies cases and the number of dog bites were used to estimate the risk. In addition to the covariates, random effects pertaining to spatial dependence were included in the model using a conditional autoregressive model that accounted for the spatial autocorrelation with adjacent sub-districts. Preliminary results suggest that the number of Buddhist temples, human population density, and unowned dogs and cat population were significantly associated with the risk of rabies The number of open garbage dumps, which provide a site for food for the free-roaming animals, was not statistically significant (p<0.05). The fitted values were mapped and classified into five based on natural breaks. Sub-districts with classes three and above were considered to be at high risk (1412/7768; 18.18%). In subsequent steps, data available at both sub-district and provincial level, including the anti-rabies vaccination of dogs and the human post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) usage, will be incorporated following a nested modeling approach. The risk maps may be useful to improve the current dissemination of dog vaccination, at the sub-district level, in Thailand. Acknowledgements We acknowledge the Center for Global Health and Social Responsibility of the University of Minnesota for funding this research. Keywords: Conditional auto regressive model, One Health, Thailand, Risk maps, Rabies - epidemiology Conference: GeoVet 2019. Novel spatio-temporal approaches in the era of Big Data, Davis, United States, 8 Oct - 10 Oct, 2019. Presentation Type: Regular oral presentation Topic: Spatio-temporal surveillance and modeling approaches Citation: Kanankege KS, Wiratsudakul A, Prasarnphanich O, Wongnak P, Yoopatthanawon C, Alvarez J, Errecaborde K and Perez AM (2019). Identifying opportunities to improve the effectiveness in rabies control in Thailand using geographical analysis. Front. Vet. Sci. Conference Abstract: GeoVet 2019. Novel spatio-temporal approaches in the era of Big Data. doi: 10.3389/conf.fvets.2019.05.00028 Copyright: The abstracts in this collection have not been subject to any Frontiers peer review or checks, and are not endorsed by Frontiers. They are made available through the Frontiers publishing platform as a service to conference organizers and presenters. The copyright in the individual abstracts is owned by the author of each abstract or his/her employer unless otherwise stated. Each abstract, as well as the collection of abstracts, are published under a Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 (attribution) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) and may thus be reproduced, translated, adapted and be the subject of derivative works provided the authors and Frontiers are attributed. For Frontiers’ terms and conditions please see https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/terms-and-conditions. Received: 10 Jun 2019; Published Online: 27 Sep 2019. * Correspondence: Mx. Kaushi S Kanankege, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, St. Paul, United States, kanan009@umn.edu Login Required This action requires you to be registered with Frontiers and logged in. To register or login click here. Abstract Info Abstract The Authors in Frontiers Kaushi S Kanankege Anuwat Wiratsudakul Ong-Orn Prasarnphanich Phrusamon Wongnak Chakchalat Yoopatthanawon Julio Alvarez Kaylee Errecaborde Andres M Perez Google Kaushi S Kanankege Anuwat Wiratsudakul Ong-Orn Prasarnphanich Phrusamon Wongnak Chakchalat Yoopatthanawon Julio Alvarez Kaylee Errecaborde Andres M Perez Google Scholar Kaushi S Kanankege Anuwat Wiratsudakul Ong-Orn Prasarnphanich Phrusamon Wongnak Chakchalat Yoopatthanawon Julio Alvarez Kaylee Errecaborde Andres M Perez PubMed Kaushi S Kanankege Anuwat Wiratsudakul Ong-Orn Prasarnphanich Phrusamon Wongnak Chakchalat Yoopatthanawon Julio Alvarez Kaylee Errecaborde Andres M Perez Related Article in Frontiers Google Scholar PubMed Abstract Close Back to top Javascript is disabled. Please enable Javascript in your browser settings in order to see all the content on this page.

Rabies immune status of raccoon dogs residing in areas where rabies bait vaccine has been distributed.

Since 2000, large amounts of rabies bait vaccine have been distributed in two provinces where raccoon dog-mediated rabies has occurred. A total of 146 raccoon dogs were caught in Gangwon and Gyeonggi Provinces from January 2017 to June 2018, and raccoon dog blood samples were collected. Of the 146 raccoon dogs, 13.7% (20/146) had rabies antibodies. In Gyeonggi and Gangwon provinces, the rate of rabies antibody was 8.5% (5/59) and 17.2% (15/87), respectively. Considering these results, it would be desirable to improve the distribution method or use a new bait vaccine to prevent animal rabies in South Korea.

A Comparative Review of Prevention of Rabies Incursion between Japan and Other Rabies-Free Countries or Regions.

Although rabies still kills many people, the global eradication of human rabies is considered to be feasible. Progress towards eradication may differ among regions with differing socio-economic statuses; therefore, states that successfully eradicate this disease must be vigilant for rabies re-emergence. Here, we discuss challenges that remain concerning current rabies prevention measures and risk assessment results concerning possible rabies introduction and spread in rabies-free Japan. We summarize the preventative measures undertaken by representative rabies-free countries and regions. Our risk assessment results show that the risk of rabies reintroduction under current circumstances is very low, and that subsequent spread of the disease would be minimal because of quite low value of basic reproduction number. Similar assessments conducted in other rabies-free areas also showed limited risks of introduction. The majority of rabies-free countries maintain their rabies-free status through strict import quarantine of carnivorous animals, efficient surveillance of animal rabies including wildlife, quick emergency responses, and raising public awareness of the disease. To maintain the current rabies-free status in Japan, we strongly recommend maintaining the current quarantine system and reinforcing stakeholder compliance for those involved in international movement of dogs. Moreover, sustainable surveillance systems targeting wildlife are indispensable.

Mоnitoring the features of the episothology of the talk in scada district of Kherson region

Mоnitoring the features of the episothology of the talk in scada district of Kherson region

Knowledge about epidemiological determinants of rabies and its prevention amongst medical interns of Marathwada region of Maharashtra, India

Background: Rabies is one of the most important zoonotic diseases in India. About 99% of all human deaths from rabies occur in the developing nations. Dogs are the main reservoir of rabies in India. It is invariably fatal if proper treatment is not instituted promptly. One of the important factors associated with successful treatment is the knowledge of the caregiver in the proper management of animal bites and rabies vaccination. Hence the present study was conducted to assess the knowledge about epidemiological determinants of rabies &amp; its prevention amongst medical interns.Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out amongst 76 interns of a Private Medical College in Marathwada region of Maharashtra during the period of September to October 2018. Pre-designed, pre-structured questionnaire was used for data collection. Data was entered in MS Excel sheet and analyzed accordingly.Results: Out of 76 interns, there were 36 (47.3%) males and 40 (52.7%) females. Majority 61(80.3%) were Muslims followed by 14(18.4%) were Hindus. About 68.4% interns correctly knew that the route of administration of vaccination could be either intra-muscular or intra-dermal (p=0.0220). About 1/4th i.e. 25% interns didn’t know about incubation period of rabies in human (p=0.0079). However, 29(38.2%) interns didn’t know about exact site of administration of rabies immunoglobulin is at wound site.Conclusions: The present study concluded that there were significant gaps in the knowledge about prevention of rabies which needs to be overcome immediately with proper training.

Rabies surveillance in the United States during 2017.

OBJECTIVE To describe rabies and rabies-related events occurring during 2017 in the United States. DESIGN Cross-sectional analysis of passive surveillance data. ANIMALS All animals submitted for laboratory diagnosis of rabies in the United States during 2017. PROCEDURES State and territorial public health departments provided data on animals submitted for rabies testing in 2017. Data were analyzed temporally and geographically to assess trends in domestic and sylvatic animal rabies cases. RESULTS During 2017, 52 jurisdictions reported 4,454 rabid animals to the CDC, representing a 9.3% decrease from the 4,910 rabid animals reported in 2016. Of the 4,454 cases of animal rabies, 4,055 (91.0%) involved wildlife species. Relative contributions by the major animal groups were as follows: 1,433 (32.2%) bats, 1,275 (28.6%) raccoons, 939 (21.1%) skunks, 314 (7.0%) foxes, 276 (6.2%) cats, 62 (1.4%) dogs, and 36 (0.8%) cattle. There was a 0.4% increase in the number of samples submitted for testing in 2017, compared with the number submitted in 2016. Two human rabies deaths were reported in 2017, compared with none in 2016. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE The overall number of reported cases of animal rabies has decreased over time. Laboratory testing of animals suspected to be rabid remains a critical public health function and continues to be a cost-effective method to directly influence human rabies postexposure prophylaxis recommendations.

Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices Regarding animal Bites and Rabies; a Multi-Center Study

Introduction: Animal bites and rabies are perceived and managed differently from bites and stings related to envenoms snakes, scorpions and spiders. This study aimed at evaluating knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) of local population regarding animal bites and rabies, as a point of comparison for future studies on venomous animals. Methods: This cross-sectional KAP study included 1093 subjects from four rural areas of Mashhad. Data gathered through a validated and reliable structured questionnaire. Results: In total, 1093 respondents included in the study consist of 53% male and 42% adults of 20 to 9 years old. Assessing knowledge; 70% of cases were presented with weak and moderate knowledge related to clinical manifestations, but just the opposite, majority of the respondents (83%) were categorised as good or excellent in their knowledge of prevention. Assessing attitudes; almost all (91%) of respondents categorised as good or attitude. Assessing practices; 33% of cases revealed that there are no good practices with regard to animal bites and rabies. Respondent’s knowledge of prevention was significantly correlated with age (P = 0.01) and educational level (P = 0.002). Both attitudes and practices had significant relations with age. Respondents aged 20- 39 years showed better practices than other age groups (P < 0.01). Conclusion: this study found that while information on prevention is acceptable, clinical findings of bites and rabies are relatively unknown. Preventive measure should include clinical manifestations as well as currently implemented focus on prevention, vaccination and treatment.

Low-Cost Animal Rabies Vaccination Clinics in Maryland Facilitate Access to Rabies Vaccination for Pets.

Rabies is a zoonotic disease that poses a serious public health risk. To facilitate pet owner compliance with statewide mandatory animal rabies immunization requirements, Maryland statute requires Maryland's local health departments to conduct low-cost animal rabies vaccination clinics at least twice per year. We describe the outputs of these public low-cost clinics by documenting the number of animals vaccinated, number of clinics held annually, and cost per vaccine to pet owners for the years 2015-2016. These data are compared with clinic data from 2006 to 2008, providing insight into changes that have occurred in the decade interval between the surveys and consequently informing future clinic policies and procedures. The Maryland low-cost rabies clinic model allows for the vaccination of roughly 20,000 pet animals per year, representing ∼1% of the Maryland pet population, and can be adopted by other states to allow for more comprehensive rabies vaccination coverage in other regions of the country.

Епізоотична ситуація зі сказу тварин у північних та західних областях України

Епізоотична ситуація зі сказу тварин у північних та західних областях України

Healthcare utilization, provisioning of post-exposure prophylaxis, and estimation of human rabies burden in Madagascar

In Madagascar, dog-mediated rabies has been endemic for over a century, however there is little data on its incidence or impact. We collected data over a 16-month period on provisioning of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) at a focal clinic in the Moramanga District and determined the rabies status of biting animals using clinical and laboratory diagnosis. We find that animal rabies cases are widespread, and clinic-based triage and investigation are effective ways to increase detection of rabies exposures and to rule out non-cases. A high proportion of rabies-exposed persons from Moramanga sought (84%) and completed PEP (90% of those that initiated PEP), likely reflecting the access and free provisioning of PEP in the district. Current clinic vial sharing practices demonstrate the potential for intradermal administration of PEP in endemic African settings, reducing vaccine use by 50% in comparison to intramuscular administration. A high proportion of PEP demand was attributed to rabies cases, with approximately 20% of PEP administered to probable rabies exposures and an additional 20% to low-to-no risk contacts with confirmed/probable animal or human cases. Using a simplified decision tree and our data on rabies exposure status and health-seeking behavior, we estimated an annual incidence of 42–110 rabies exposures and 1–3 deaths per 100,000 persons annually. Extrapolating to Madagascar, we estimate an annual burden of 282–745 human rabies deaths with current PEP provisioning averting 1499–3958 deaths each year. Data from other clinics and districts are needed to improve these estimates, particularly given that PEP availability is currently limited to only 31 clinics in the country. A combined strategy of mass dog vaccination, enhanced surveillance, and expanded access to PEP along with more judicious guidelines for administration could effectively reduce and eventually eliminate the burden of rabies in Madagascar.

Of bats and livestock: The epidemiology of rabies in Trinidad, West Indies

Vampire bat-transmitted human rabies was first recognized in Trinidad during a major outbreak during the first half of the 20th century. To date, Trinidad is the only Caribbean island with vampire bat-transmitted rabies. Herein, we summarized the epidemiological situation of rabies in Trinidad during the period 1971–2015 through the analysis of field and laboratory records. During the study period, 259 domestic and wild animal rabies cases were laboratory confirmed with an annual median of 2 animal rabies cases. Over the 45 years, five significant epizootic events occurred (in 1974, 1997–1998, 2000, 2010 and 2012–2013) over which there was a significant increasing trend for the occurrence of rabies cases. The highest number of cases (87 cases) occurred during the 1997–1998 event, and the rabies positive proportion, was highest (0.7, 95% CI 0.52-0.84) for the year 2000. Rabies risk was highest for cattle (negative binomial parameter estimate 4.84, 95% CI 3.45–6.76), although numerous rabies cases were seen in the caprine population during the study period. In light of this finding, consideration should be given to including the small ruminant population in the national rabies vaccination program. Outbreaks affected mainly the counties of St. Patrick and St. George East, with epidemic progression outwards, and these areas should be prioritized for prevention and control efforts.

The role of socioeconomic and climatic factors in the spatio-temporal variation of human rabies in China

BackgroundRabies is a significant public health problem in China. Previous spatial epidemiological studies have helped understand the epidemiology of animal and human rabies in China. However, quantification of effects derived from relevant factors was insufficient and complex spatial interactions were not well articulated, which may lead to non-negligible bias. In this study, we aimed to quantify the role of socio-economic and climate factors in the spatial distribution of human rabies to support decision making pertaining to rabies control in China.MethodsWe conducted a multivariate analysis of human rabies in China with explicit consideration for spatial heterogeneity and spatial dependence effects. The panel of 20,368 cases reported between 2005 and 2013 and their socio-economic and climate factors was implemented in regression models. Several significant covariates were extracted, including the longitude, the average temperature, the distance to county center, the distance to the road network and the distance to the nearest rabies case. The GMM was adopted to provide unbiased estimation with respect to heterogeneity and spatial autocorrelation.ResultsThe analysis explained the inferred relationships between the counts of cases aggregated to 271 spatially-defined cells and the explanatory variables. The results suggested that temperature, longitude, the distance to county centers and the distance to the road network are positively associated with the local incidence of human rabies while the distance to newly occurred rabies cases has a negative correlation. With heterogeneity and spatial autocorrelation taken into consideration, the estimation of regression models performed better.ConclusionsIt was found that climatic and socioeconomic factors have significant influence on the spread of human rabies in China as they continuously affect the living environments of humans and animals, which critically impacts on how timely local citizens can gain access to post-exposure prophylactic services. Moreover, through comparisons between traditional regression models and the aggregation model that allows for heterogeneity and spatial effects, we demonstrated the validity and advantage of the aggregation model. It outperformed the existing models and decreased the estimation bias brought by omission of the spatial heterogeneity and spatial dependence effects. Statistical results are readily translated into public health policy takeaways.

Epizootological aspects of rabies of animals in Khmelnytskyi region

Epizootological aspects of rabies of animals in Khmelnytskyi region

Surveillance of Rabies Postexposure Prophylaxis in Greece: 4 Years Experience.

Rabies reemerged in Greek fauna during October 2012, 25 years after the last report in animals and 42 after the last human case. This study examined the administration of rabies postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) in humans over the period 2012-2016. A total of 1,454 individuals (62.6% males) received PEP. The vast majority (92.3%) of regimens was initiated in high risk for animal rabies areas (11.1 PEP per 100,000 residents per year). Among the exposed, 77.0% presented at a healthcare setting during the first 24 h after the incident; more severe injuries were associated with faster presentation (p < 0.05). A vaccine series was administered in 54.5% of exposed persons whereas 43.7% received both vaccine and immunoglobulin and 1.7% immunoglobulin only. Exposure to stray dogs represented 68.4% of all incidents. In exposures occurring in nonhigh risk for rabies areas, bat was the second most frequently involved animal (13.4% of incidents). All dogs and cats evaluated by a veterinarian and laboratory-confirmed rabid were initially deemed suspect for rabies during clinical examination or according to history. No human rabies cases were recorded during the period of the study. Surveillance of PEP represents a valuable tool for aiding assessment of present and future demands in prophylaxis biologicals, outlining the epidemiological profile of exposures and planning effective policies for the management of exposure incidents.

Isolation of Rabies Virus from the Salivary Glands of Wild and Domestic Carnivores during a Skunk Rabies Epizootic.

Rabies is a fatal zoonotic disease of global importance. Rabies virus is shed in the saliva of infected hosts and is primarily transmitted through bite contact. Canine rabies has been eliminated from the US, but wildlife constitutes more than 90% of the reported cases of animal rabies in the US each year. In the US, several wild carnivore species are reservoirs of distinct variants of rabies virus (RV). After decades of apparent absence, the south-central skunk (SCSK) RV variant was detected in Colorado in 2007 and resulted in a large-scale epizootic in striped skunk ( Mephitis mephitis) populations in northern Colorado starting in 2012. We attempted isolation of RV from salivary gland tissues from confirmed rabid carnivores, comprising 51 striped skunks and seven other wild and domestic carnivores collected during 2013 through 2015 in northern Colorado. We isolated RV from 84.0% (158/188; 95% confidence interval=78.1-88.6%) of striped skunk and 71% (17/24; 95% confidence interval =51-85%) of other carnivore salivary glands. These data suggested that infected reservoir and vector species were equally likely to shed the SCSK RV variant and posed a secondary transmission risk to humans and other animals.