Animal Model Of Cerebral Palsy Research Articles

Distinguishing Laterality in Brain Injury in Rabbit Fetal Magnetic Resonance Imaging Using Novel Volume Rendering Techniques

Introduction: Our laboratory has been exploring the MRI detection of fetal brain injury, which previously provided a prognostic biomarker for newborn hypertonia in an animal model of cerebral palsy (CP). The biomarker relies on distinct patterns of diffusion-weighted imaging-defined apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) in fetal brains during uterine hypoxia-ischemia (H-I). Despite the challenges posed by small brains and tissue acquisition, our objective was to differentiate between left and right brain ADC changes. Methods: A novel aspect involved utilizing three-dimensional rendering techniques to refine ADC measurements within spheroids encompassing fetal brain tissue. 25-day gestation age of rabbit fetuses underwent global hypoxia due to maternal uterine ischemia. Results: Successful differentiation of left and right brain regions was achieved in 28% of the fetal brains. Ordinal analysis revealed predominantly higher ADC on the left side compared to the right at baseline and across the entire time series. During H-I and reperfusion-reoxygenation, the right side exhibited a favored percentage change. Among these fetal brains, 73% exhibited the ADC pattern predictive of hypertonia. No significant differences between left and right sides were observed in patterns predicting hypertonia, except for one timepoint during H-I. This study also highlights a balance between left-sided and right-sided alterations within the population. Conclusion: This study emphasizes the importance of investigating laterality and asymmetric hemispheric lesions for early diagnosis of brain injury, leading to CP. The technological limitations in obtaining a clear picture of the entire fetal brain for every fetus mirror the challenges encountered in human studies.

Collagen-binding peptide reverses bone loss in a mouse model of cerebral palsy based on clinical databases.

Individuals with cerebral palsy (CP) experience bone loss due to impaired weight bearing. Despite serious complications, there is no standard medication. To develop a new pharmacological agent, we performed a series of studies. The primary aim was to develop an animal model of CP to use our target medication based on transcriptome analysis of individuals with CP. The secondary aim was to show the therapeutic capability of collagen-binding peptide (CBP) in reversing bone loss in the CP mouse model. A total of 119 people with CP and 13 healthy adults participated in the study and 140 mice were used for the behavioral analysis and discovery of therapeutic effects in the preclinical study. The mouse model of CP was induced by hypoxic-ischemic brain injury. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were established for CBP medication in the CP mouse model with bone loss. On the basis of clinical outcomes showing insufficient mechanical loading from non-ambulatory function and that underweight mainly affects bone loss in adults with CP, we developed a mouse model of CP with bone loss. Injury severity and body weight mainly affected bone loss in the CP mouse model. Transcriptome analysis showed SPP1 expression downregulated in adults with CP who showed lower bone density than healthy controls. Therefore, a synthesized CBP was administered to the mouse model. Trabecular thickness, total collagen and bone turnover activity increased with CBP treatment as compared with the saline control. Immunohistochemistry showed increased immunoreactivity of runt-related transcription factor 2 and osteocalcin, so the CBP participated in osteoblast differentiation. This study can provide a scientific basis for a promising translational approach for developing new anabolic CBP medication to treat bone loss in individuals with CP.

Therapeutic effects of the collagen-binding motif of osteopontin in an animal model of cerebral palsy with bone loss

Therapeutic effects of the collagen-binding motif of osteopontin in an animal model of cerebral palsy with bone loss

Animal models of developmental motor disorders: parallels to human motor dysfunction in cerebral palsy.

Cerebral palsy (CP) is the most common motor disability in children. Much of the previous research on CP has focused on reducing the severity of brain injuries, whereas very few researchers have investigated the cause and amelioration of motor symptoms. This research focus has had an impact on the choice of animal models. Many of the commonly used animal models do not display a prominent CP-like motor phenotype. In general, rodent models show anatomically severe injuries in the central nervous system (CNS) in response to insults associated with CP, including hypoxia, ischemia, and neuroinflammation. Unfortunately, most rodent models do not display a prominent motor phenotype that includes the hallmarks of spasticity (muscle stiffness and hyperreflexia) and weakness. To study motor dysfunction related to developmental injuries, a larger animal model is needed, such as rabbit, pig, or nonhuman primate. In this work, we describe and compare various animal models of CP and their potential for translation to the human condition.

A Critical Evaluation of Current Concepts in Cerebral Palsy.

Spastic cerebral palsy (CP), despite the name, is not consistently identifiable by specific brain lesions. CP animal models focus on risk factors for development of CP, yet few reproduce the diagnostic symptoms. Animal models of CP must advance beyond risk factors to etiologies, including both the brain and spinal cord.

Morphofunctional characteristics of skeletal muscle in rats with cerebral palsy.

Knowledge of skeletal muscle adaptations is important to understand the functional deficits in cerebral palsy (CP). This study aimed to investigate the morphofunctional characteristics of skeletal muscle in a CP animal model. Initially, pregnant Wistar rats were injected intraperitoneally with saline or lipopolysaccharide over the last five days of pregnancy. The control group (n=8) consisted of male pups born to females injected with saline. The CP group (n=8) consisted of male pups born to females injected with lipopolysaccharide, which were submitted to perinatal anoxia [day of birth, postnatal day 0 (P0)] and sensorimotor restriction (P1-P30). The open-field test was undertaken on P29 and P45. On P48, the animals were weighed, and the plantaris muscle was collected and its weight and length were measured. Transverse sections were stained with haematoxylin-eosin, NADH-TR, Masson's trichrome and non-specific esterase reaction for analysis. and transmission electron microscopy was performed. In the CP group, reductions were observed in mobility time, number of crossings and rearing frequency, body weight, muscle weight and length, and nucleus-to-fibre and capillary-to-fibre ratios. There was a statistically significant increase in the percentage area of the muscle section occupied by collagen; reduction in the area and increase in the number of type I muscle fibres; increase in myofibrillar disorganization and Z-line disorganization and dissolution; and reduction in the area and largest and smallest diameters of neuromuscular junctions. Thus this animal model of CP produced morphofunctional alterations in skeletal muscle, that were associated with evidence of motor deficits as demonstrated by the open-field test.

Prenatal ischemia deteriorates white matter, brain organization, and function: implications for prematurity and cerebral palsy.

Cerebral palsy (CP) describes a group of neurodevelopmental disorders of posture and movement that are frequently associated with sensory, behavioral, and cognitive impairments. The clinical picture of CP has changed with improved neonatal care over the past few decades, resulting in higher survival rates of infants born very preterm. Children born preterm seem particularly vulnerable to perinatal hypoxia-ischemia insults at birth. Animal models of CP are crucial for elucidating underlying mechanisms and for development of strategies of neuroprotection and remediation. Most animal models of CP are based on hypoxia-ischemia around the time of birth. In this review, we focus on alterations of brain organization and functions, especially sensorimotor changes, induced by prenatal ischemia in rodents and rabbits, and relate these alterations to neurodevelopmental disorders found in preterm children. We also discuss recent literature that addresses the relationship between neural and myelin plasticity, as well as possible contributions of white matter injury to the emergence of brain dysfunctions induced by prenatal ischemia.

Animal Models of Cerebral Palsy: Hypoxic Brain Injury in the Newborn.

Hypoxic insults are implicated in the spectrum of fetal disorders, including cerebral palsy (CP). In view of the major contribution of intrapartum risk factors and prematurity to subsequent neurological morbidity and mortality in humans, this study aimed to clarify the pathophysiology of brain injury, especially periventricular white matter damage (WMD), that occur in utero to the immature and near-term fetal CNS. An evaluation of the resulting neurological and behavioural phenotype in the newborn was performed by utilising a battery of neurobehavioural tests, including the Morris water-maze and the open-field test, followed by cerebral MRI and histopathology. This study used a murine model to examine the deleterious effects of WMD brought about by cerebral hypoxia-ischemia (HI) and the characteristic features of CP in mice. Murine models have proven themselves valuable in the area of experimental neuroscience. Hypoxia-treated mice were observed to demonstrate a significant neurofunctional deficit compared with sham mice on two behavioral measures. Indeed, different brain regions, including the sensorimotor cortex, the striatum, and the hippocampus were noticeably damaged after HI insult, as determined by both MRI and histopathology. These results, albeit qualitative in nature, appear to support the pre-existing finding that the long-term neurofunctional outcome in animal subjects with CP is strongly associated with the anatomical extent and pattern of cerebral damage as determined by both delayed neuroimaging and histopathology.

Long-Lasting Paracrine Effects of Human Cord Blood Cells on Damaged Neocortex in an Animal Model of Cerebral Palsy

Neonatal asphyxia is an important contributor to cerebral palsy (CP), for which there is no effective treatment to date. The administration of human cord blood cells (hUCBCs) is emerging as a therapeutic strategy for the treatment of neurological disorders. However, there are few studies on the application of hUCBCs to the treatment of neonatal ischemia as a model of CP. Experiments and behavioral tests (mainly motor tests) performed on neonatal hypoxia/ischemia have been limited to short-term effects of hUCBCs, but mechanisms of action have not been investigated. We performed a study on the use of hUCBCs in a rat model of neonatal hypoxia/ischemia and investigated the underlying mechanism for therapeutic benefits of hUCBC treatment. hUCBCs were intravenously transplanted into a rat model of neonatal hypoxia ischemia. hUCBCs increased microglia temporarily in the periventricular striatum in the early phase of disease, protected mature neurons in the neocortex from injury, paved the way for the near-normalization of brain damage in the subventricular zone (SVZ), and, in consequence, significantly improved performance in a battery of behavioral tests compared to the vehicle-treated group. Although the transplanted cells were rarely observed in the brain 3 weeks after transplantation, the effects of the improved behavioral functions persisted. Our preclinical findings suggest that the long-lasting positive influence of hUCBCs is derived from paracrine effects of hUCBCs that stimulate recovery in the injured brain and protect against further brain damage.

Stem cell therapy for neonatal brain injury: Perspectives and Challenges

Cerebral palsy is a major health problem caused by brain damage during pregnancy, delivery, or the immediate postnatal period. Perinatal stroke, intraventricular hemorrhage, and asphyxia are the most common causes of neonatal brain damage. Periventricular white matter damage (periventricular leukomalacia) is the predominant form in premature infants and the most common antecedent of cerebral palsy. Stem cell treatment has proven effective in restoring injured organs and tissues in animal models. The potential of stem cells for self-renewal and differentiation translates into substantial neuroprotection and neuroregeneration in the animal brain, with minimal risks of rejection and side effects. Stem cell treatments described to date have used neural stem cells, embryonic stem cells, mesenchymal stem cells, umbilical cord stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells. Most of these treatments are still experimental. In this review, we focus on the efficacy of stem cell therapy in animal models of cerebral palsy, and discuss potential implications for current and future clinical trials.

Progress in the animal model of cerebral palsy

Cerebral palsy is a major cause of severe chronic disability in children. Experimental models aim to replicate one or more features of cerebral palsy in developing animals. These models are as heterogeneous as the disorder itself, such as timing.and mechanism of injury (stroke, infection, congenital malformation or asphyxia),target of injury (white matter or neurons) or function outcome. This review is to summarize different experimental models in cerebral palsy. Key words: Animal; Model; Cerebral palsy

Harnessing activity‐dependent plasticity to repair the damaged corticospinal tract in an animal model of cerebral palsy

The corticospinal tract (CST) is the principal motor control pathway for skilled movements. It has a protracted postnatal development, creating a protracted period of vulnerability to perinatal brain and spinal cord injury. Research has shown that the motor signs in cerebral palsy (CP) reflect the loss of CST connections as well as development of abnormal motor systems connections, especially between the developing CST and spinal motor circuits. In this paper, we discuss a feline model of CP that we have developed. The animals develop a pattern of abnormal CST connections that is remarkably similar to that seen in hemiplegic CP and visuomotor impairments. Using this model we devised neural activity-based therapeutic approaches to repair the abnormal CST connections and restore normal skilled movement control. Our studies stress that more active CST connections are better able to maintain strong synaptic connections with spinal motor circuits. We propose that perinatal trauma initiates a vicious cycle in which CST axons that are spared after an injury are at a disadvantage for maintaining spinal connections, leading to further reductions in connections and motor signs. If this is so, targeted activation of the spared CST might interrupt this process and lead to functional improvement.

Neuronal Nitric Oxide Synthase Inhibition Prevents Cerebral Palsy following Hypoxia-Ischemia in Fetal Rabbits: Comparison between JI-8 and 7-Nitroindazole

Cerebral palsy and death are serious consequences of perinatal hypoxia-ischemia (HI). Important concepts can now be tested using an animal model of cerebral palsy. We have previously shown that reactive oxygen and nitrogen species are produced in antenatal HI. A novel class of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) inhibitors have been designed, and they ameliorate postnatal motor deficits when administered prior to the hypoxic-ischemic insult. This study asks how the new class of inhibitors, using JI-8 (K_i for nNOS: 0.014 µM) as a representative, compare with the frequently used nNOS inhibitor 7-nitroindazole (7-NI; K_i: 0.09 ± 0.024 µM). A theoretical dose equivalent to 75 K_i of JI-8 or equimolar 7-NI was administered to pregnant rabbit dams 30 min prior to and immediately after 40 min of uterine ischemia at 22 days gestation (70% term). JI-8 treatment resulted in a significant decrease in NOS activity (39%) in fetal brain homogenates acutely after HI, without affecting maternal blood pressure and heart rate. JI-8 treatment resulted in 33 normal kits, 2 moderately and 13 severely affected kits and 5 stillbirths, compared with 8 normal, 3 moderately affected and 5 severely affected kits and 10 stillbirths in the 7-NI group. In terms of neurobehavioral outcome, 7-NI was not different from saline treatment, while JI-8 was superior to saline and 7-NI in its protective effect (p < 0.05). In the surviving kits, JI-8 significantly improved the locomotion score over both saline and 7-NI scores. JI-8 was also significantly superior to saline in preserving smell, muscle tone and righting reflex function, but 7-NI did not show significant improvement. Furthermore, a 100-fold increase in the dose (15.75 µmol/kg) of 7-NI significantly decreased systolic blood pressure in the dam, while JI-8 did not. The new class of inhibitors such as JI-8 shows promise in the prevention of cerebral palsy and is superior to the previously more commonly used nNOS inhibitor.

Effects of fetal exposure to lipopolysaccharide, perinatal anoxia and sensorimotor restriction on motor skills and musculoskeletal tissue: Implications for an animal model of cerebral palsy

Cerebral palsy (CP) is a disorder of locomotion, posture and movement that can be caused by prenatal, perinatal or postnatal insults during brain development. An increased incidence of CP has been correlated to perinatal asphyxia and maternal infections during gestation. The effects of maternal exposure to low doses of bacterial endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide, LPS) on motor behavior and hind leg muscle morphology were examined in young adult rats. Prenatal exposure to LPS was also studied in association with perinatal anoxia (PA) and/or combined with subsequent sensorimotor restriction (SR) and all possible combinations of the three conditions. Rats exposed to LPS, PA and SR alone or combined (LPS + PA, LPS + SR, PA + SR, and LPS + PA + SR) showed deficits in balance and coordination when tested on the Rotarod. The SR groups, with or without other insults, (SR, LPS + SR, PA + SR, and LPS + PA + SR) exhibited the greatest motor deficits, characterized by the reduced ability to perform the horizontal ladder and suspended bar tests on postnatal day 29 (P29) and P45. Histological assessment revealed substantial morphological alterations in the slow ankle extensor soleus muscle of all SR rats. Soleus myofibers presented a reduction in cross-sectional area (CSA), an increase in sarcomere length and a decrease in sarcomere density. The CSA of the fast flexor tibialis anterior muscle was only decreased by the association of all treatments (LPS, PA, SR), but no differences were found in sarcomere length and density when compared to control. A slow-to-fast fiber type transition was only observed in the soleus and tibialis anterior muscles in the SR groups. These results suggest that exposure to LPS during the prenatal period, PA, SR alone or in combination has various degrees of consequences on motor behavior and muscle morphology. These data corroborate the concept that early experience-dependent movements play the most important role in shaping motor behavior and that reduced or anomalous sensorimotor experience can contribute to the development of aberrant motor behavior and muscle morphology.

Effect of Mn Porphyrins and Antioxidants on MRI Predictors and Behavior in an Animal Model of Cerebral Palsy

Effect of Mn Porphyrins and Antioxidants on MRI Predictors and Behavior in an Animal Model of Cerebral Palsy

Critical Brain Injury in Hypoxia-Ischemia and Reperfusion-Reoxygenation in an Animal Model of Cerebral Palsy

Critical Brain Injury in Hypoxia-Ischemia and Reperfusion-Reoxygenation in an Animal Model of Cerebral Palsy

A Model of Cerebral Palsy From Fetal Hypoxia-Ischemia

Disorders of the maternal-placental-fetal unit often results in fetal brain injury, which in turn results in one of the highest burdens of disease, because of the lifelong consequences and cost to society. Investigating hypoxia-ischemia in the perinatal period requires the factoring of timing of the insult, determination of end-points, taking into account the innate development, plasticity, and enhanced recovery. Prenatal hypoxia-ischemia is believed to account for a majority of cerebral palsy cases. We have modeled sustained and repetitive hypoxia-ischemia in the pregnant rabbit in utero to mimic the insults of abruptio placenta and labor, respectively. Rabbits have many advantages over other animal species; principally, their motor development is in the perinatal period, akin to humans. Sustained hypoxia-ischemia at 70% (E22) and 79% (E25) caused stillbirths and multiple deficits in the postnatal survivors. The deficits included impairment in multiple tests of spontaneous locomotion, reflex motor activity, motor responses to olfactory stimuli, and the coordination of suck and swallow. Hypertonia was observed in the E22 and E25 survivors and persisted for at least 11 days. Noninvasive imaging using MRI suggests that white matter injury in the internal capsule could explain some of the hypertonia. Further investigation is underway in other vulnerable regions such as the basal ganglia, thalamus and brain stem, and development of other noninvasive determinants of motor deficits. For the first time critical mechanistic pathways can be tested in a clinically relevant animal model of cerebral palsy.

Sensory deficits and olfactory system injury detected by novel application of MEMRI in newborn rabbit after antenatal hypoxia–ischemia

Sensory deficits are frequently observed in cerebral palsy patients. The motor response to smell was found to be abnormal in an animal model of cerebral palsy following fetal hypoxia–ischemia. We hypothesized that fetal hypoxia–ischemia causes long-lasting and selective olfactory tract injury. A population of newborn rabbits with motor deficits was selected after spontaneous delivery following uterine ischemia at 22 days gestation (E22, 70% term). MnCl 2, 20 mg/kg, was administered in both nostrils at postnatal day 1 (E32). One nostril was occluded to control for smell augmentation through the other open nostril by intermittent amyl acetate stimulation for 6 h. T1-weighted MRI images were obtained on newborn rabbits. Amyl acetate exposure increased augmentation of Mn 2+ uptake in olfactory epithelium on the open side in control group but the augmentation was decreased after hypoxia. The proportion of animals with a greater enhancement in the open side increased in controls after amyl acetate, but not in hypoxia. Mn 2+ took longer to arrive at the olfactory bulbs and the rate of subsequent increase was slower in hypoxia. Concomitantly, the thickness of olfactory epithelium and the number of mature olfactory neurons, detected on olfactory marker protein immunostaining, were significantly less in the hypoxic group. Functional MRI studies are superior to neurobehavioral smell testing in the rabbit kits as they are more sensitive and quantifiable measures and do not depend upon the motor response. Antenatal hypoxia–ischemia causes long-lasting injury to neuronal tracts of the olfactory system including olfactory epithelium.

White Matter Injury Correlates with Hypertonia in an Animal Model of Cerebral Palsy

Hypertonia and postural deficits are observed in cerebral palsy and similar abnormalities are observed in postnatal rabbits after antenatal hypoxia-ischemia. To explain why some kits become hypertonic, we hypothesized that white matter injury was responsible for the hypertonia. We compared newborn kits at postnatal day 1 (P1) with and without hypertonia after in vivo global fetal hypoxia-ischemia in pregnant rabbits at 70% gestation. The aim was to examine white matter injury by diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging indices, including fractional anisotropy (FA). At P1, FA and area of white matter were significantly lower in corpus callosum, internal capsule, and corona radiata of the hypertonic kits (n=32) than that of controls (n=19) while nonhypertonic kits (n=20) were not different from controls. The decrease in FA correlated with decrease in area only in hypertonia. A threshold of FA combined with area identified only hypertonic kits. A reduction in volume and loss of phosphorylated neurofilaments in corpus callosum and internal capsule were observed on immunostaining. Concomitant hypertonia with ventriculomegaly resulted in a further decrease of FA from P1 to P5 while those without ventriculomegaly had a similar increase of FA as controls. Thus, hypertonia is associated with white matter injury, and a population of hypertonia can be identified by magnetic resonance imaging variables. The white matter injury manifests as a decrease in the number and density of fiber tracts causing the decrease in FA and volume. Furthermore, the dynamic response of FA may be a good indicator of the plasticity and repair of the postnatal developing brain.

No phenotype associated with established lipopolysaccharide model for cerebral palsy

Cerebral palsy (CP) is associated with childhood spasticity, seizures, and paralysis. Oligodendrocyte damage resulting in periventicular leukomalacia (PVL) in the developing brain has been implicated. Animal models of CP have used prenatal hypoxia and infection with histopathology of PVL as the end point. To evaluate whether this histologic end point is associated with a CP phenotype, we reproduced a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) model for PVL, 1 and evaluated developmental, behavioral, and motor outcomes. On gestational day 15, Fischer 344 rats were intracervically injected with .1 mg/kg LPS (n = 5) or saline (n = 4). After delivery, evaluation for developmental milestones was performed on days 1 to 21 (LPS = 45; control = 30 pups). Males were also tested at 2.5 months using open-field, rotarod, and anxiety tests. On day 21, 2 pups/litter were perfused for immunohistochemistry, and stained with 2 oligodendrocyte antibodies: 2', d'-cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase (CNP), and myelin proteolipid protein (PLP) with relative densities of staining assessed using NIH Image software. Statistical analysis included Mann-Whitney U and analysis of variance (ANOVA). LPS pups demonstrated decreased CNP (P = .04) and PLP (P = .06) staining, replicating the model. There was no difference seen in neonatal weight, righting, negative geotaxis, cliff aversion, rooting, forelimb grasp, audio startle, air righting, eye opening, and activity. Surprisingly, LPS-exposed neonatal rats mastered forelimb placement (P < .01) and surface righting (P = .02) earlier than control rats. There were no differences between adult groups in open field distance traveled (P = .8), open-field locomotion time (P = .6), rotarod (P = .6), or anxiety (P = .7). Histologic evidence of white matter damage can be replicated using an LPS model for intrauterine inflammation. Significant phenotypic differences consistent with the motor and cognitive damage sequelae of such lesions (ie, CP) were not demonstrated. When evaluating animal models, it is important to assess not only biochemical markers for human disease, but also clinically relevant phenotypes.