Animal Disease Surveillance Research Articles

The Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from COVID-19-Diagnosed People to Their Pet Dogs and Cats in a Multi-Year Surveillance Project.

Recent emerging zoonotic disease outbreaks, such as that of SARS-CoV-2, have demonstrated the need for wider companion animal disease surveillance. We tested 1000 dogs and cats belonging to employees of a US veterinary hospital network that were exposed to human COVID-19 cases in the household between 1 January 2020 and 10 March 2022 for SARS-CoV-2 and surveyed their owners about clinical signs and risk factors. The seropositivity was 33% for 747 dogs and 27% for 253 cats. Pet seropositivity correlated with the US human case rates over time, exhibiting peaks corresponding with the major COVID-19 surges. Antibodies persisted longer than previously documented (828 days in dogs; 650 days in cats). Increasing age and duration of proximity to infected people were associated with increased seropositivity in dogs but not cats. Cats were more likely to have clinical signs, but an association between seropositivity and the presence of clinical signs was not found in either species.

The Socio-Economic Impact of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) on Livestock Farming in Sierra Leone, an Empirical Evidence from Six (6) Districts

As a highly infectious disease, Foot and Mouth disease (FMD) has been eradicated by many wealthy nations but remains endemic in most of the world especially countries in Sub-Saharan Africa1. When FMD outbreaks occur in disease free countries and zones that produce livestock for export, the economic impact is clear to see; however, the impact of the disease in endemic countries is more controversial, particularly when compared to diseases that cause greater mortality. Taking into account the limited resources of veterinary services for the implementation of animal disease surveillance anywhere and anytime in Sierra Leone, a socio-economic impact assessment study was conducted to quantify the impacts, spread and occurrence of the disease, in order to target and put in place precautionary control measures including targeted surveillance. The main socio-economic impact question of the study was “What is the social and economic impact of FMD in the districts under review. The study was conducted in 6 districts in the North and East of Sierra Leone. A total of 240 respondents using purposive sampling were interviewed to elicit information on the main socio-economic variables that informed the study. The study established (80%) of the sampled farmers are livestock farmers, while 32 people (13.3%) are crop farmers who mainly practice subsistence farming. The study proved that the yearly income from the sales of livestock both especially large ruminants increase to 154 (64.2%). This percentage plummeted when FMD struck in 2018-2019. The study showed that (55.8% of the household indicated that their cattle suffered from Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) during the outbreak of July-August 2018-2019, while goats and sheep suffered Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) with households reporting (70.8%) and 162 (68%) of Infection rates before the commencement of this study. The study recommended that the veterinary division of maintain and improve on active surveillance of FMD, update surveillance plan targeting priority districts and hotspots of FMD outbreak such as livestock markets to maintain the current status of Low risk to prevent social and economic impacts’

Quality assurance and maintaining trust in the Official Veterinarian system.

By assuring the quality of work carried out by official veterinarians and others, the APHA helps maintain confidence in the UK's standards of animal health, certification and disease surveillance - something that is vital for securing international trade. Sue Quinney, veterinary head of OV regulatory affairs for the APHA, explains more….

Investigating the workforce capacity and needs for animal disease surveillance and outbreak investigation: a mixed-methods study of veterinary services in Vietnam.

The need for strengthening national capacities for disease prevention, preparedness, and response is increasingly becoming urgent. Central to this is strengthening existing systems and workforce capacity for disease surveillance and disease outbreak response. This study aimed to evaluate the national capacity and needs of veterinary services in Vietnam in animal disease surveillance and outbreak investigation skills. A cross-sectional, convergent, mixed-methods study was conducted between November 2020 and April 2021. An online questionnaire was administered to government field veterinarians, followed by descriptive and multivariable analyses to understand field capacity, specifically levels of experience in outbreak investigation and animal health surveillance. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with various stakeholders in veterinary services and interview transcripts were coded and thematically analyzed. Qualitative results were used to contextualize quantitative findings from the survey. Overall, 178 field veterinary staff completed the online survey, and 25 stakeholders were interviewed. Eighty percent of respondents reported a high priority for further training in both animal disease surveillance and outbreak investigation. Training and competence were more limited at the district and commune levels, highlighting a gap in capacity at the subnational level. Reasons included a lack of in-depth training opportunities, limited access to resources and high staff turnover. Respondents who completed postgraduate qualifications in epidemiology or Field Epidemiology Training Programs were more likely to have higher levels of experience in animal health surveillance and outbreak investigation. This study identified gaps in knowledge and adoption of practices most often related to local-level or less experienced veterinary staff with limited training opportunities in epidemiology. Findings inform the prioritization of training and planning activities to further enhance the national capacity of veterinary services in Vietnam. Underlying explanations for existing gaps in capacity include inequities in skill development and training opportunities across levels of veterinary staff, gaps in the chain of command and unequal funding across provinces.

Innovative Livestock: A Survey of Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Livestock Farming Management

Modern technology has recently become a meaningful part of all life sectors, as software, sensors, smart machines, and expert systems are successfully integrated into the physical environment. This technology relies in its work on artificial intelligence techniques to make the right decisions at the right time. These technologies have a significant role in improving productivity, product quality, and industry outputs by significantly reducing human labour and errors that humans may cause. Artificial intelligence techniques are increasingly being integrated into animal husbandry and animal revolution management because they provide advantages and means that serve agriculturalists. These techniques monitor the emotional state of animals, milk production and herd management, feeding habits, the movement of animals, and their health status. AI-powered sensors can monitor the health of livestock and detect early signs of illness or stress to which they are exposed. Also, these techniques contribute to assisting agriculturalists in customising feeding programs, reducing waste, and improving product quality. This article will discuss the role of artificial intelligence techniques in animal control, farm management, disease surveillance, and sustainable resource optimisation practices.

Social media network analysis of Smallholder livestock farming communities in the United Kingdom

The creation of targeted policies and actions to help small-scale livestock keepers and reduce the risks associated with disease outbreaks in this sector is hampered by the scarcity of information about smallholder farmers. Smallholders play a crucial part in disease outbreaks containment, hence there is a need for better monitoring methods that take this population into account while gathering data. According to the literature, these communities frequently use social media as a channel for communication and information exchange. In this study we conducted social network analysis of an influential smallholder within the UK and visualised the user follower network. Additionally, we performed influential user analysis, Twitter user categorisation, and community detection to uncover more insights into the livestock farming networks. Our findings reveal distinct communities within the smallholder farming sector and identify influential users with the potential to impact information dissemination and animal health practices. The study also highlights the role of community structure in surveillance and control of animal diseases and emphasises the need for further research to refine our understanding of these communities and their unique characteristics. This work contributes to the growing body of literature on small-scale livestock farming in the UK and underscores the importance of incorporating smallholder communities into disease surveillance and control efforts.

Identifying target areas for risk-based surveillance and control of transboundary animal diseases: a seasonal analysis of slaughter and live-trade cattle movements in Uganda

Animal movements are a major driver for the spread of Transboundary Animal Diseases (TADs). These movements link populations that would otherwise be isolated and hence create opportunities for susceptible and infected individuals to meet. We used social network analysis to describe the seasonal network structure of cattle movements in Uganda and unravel critical network features that identify districts or sub-regions for targeted risk-based surveillance and intervention. We constructed weighted, directed networks based on 2019 between-district cattle movements using official livestock mobility data; the purpose of the movement (‘slaughter’ vs. ‘live trade’) was used to subset the network and capture the risks more reliably. Our results show that cattle trade can result in local and long-distance disease spread in Uganda. Seasonal variability appears to impact the structure of the network, with high heterogeneity of node and edge activity identified throughout the seasons. These observations mean that the structure of the live trade network can be exploited to target influential district hubs within the cattle corridor and peripheral areas in the south and west, which would result in rapid network fragmentation, reducing the contact structure-related trade risks. Similar exploitable features were observed for the slaughter network, where cattle traffic serves mainly slaughter hubs close to urban centres along the cattle corridor. Critically, analyses that target the complex livestock supply value chain offer a unique framework for understanding and quantifying risks for TADs such as Foot-and-Mouth disease in a land-locked country like Uganda. These findings can be used to inform the development of risk-based surveillance strategies and decision making on resource allocation. For instance, vaccine deployment, biosecurity enforcement and capacity building for stakeholders at the local community and across animal health services with the potential to limit the socio-economic impact of outbreaks, or indeed reduce their frequency.

Description of the Cattle and Small Ruminants Trade Network in Senegal and Implication for the Surveillance of Animal Diseases

Livestock mobility, particularly that of small and large ruminants, is one of the main pillars of production and trade in West Africa: livestock is moved around in search of better grazing or sold in markets for domestic consumption and for festival-related activities. These movements cover several thousand kilometers and have the capability of connecting the whole West African region, thus facilitating the diffusion of many animal and zoonotic diseases. Several factors shape mobility patterns even in normal years and surveillance systems need to account for such changes. In this paper, we present an approach based on temporal network theory to identify possible sentinel locations, i.e., locations where pathogens circulation can be detected in the early phase of the epidemic (before the peak), using two indicators: vulnerability (i.e., the probability of being reached by the disease) and time of infection (i.e., the time of first arrival of the disease). Using these indicators in our structural analysis of the changing network enabled us to identify a set of nodes that could be used in an early warning system. As a case study, we simulated the introduction of transboundary animal diseases in Senegal and used data taken from 2020 Sanitary certificates (laissez-passer sanitaire (LPS)) issued by the Senegalese Veterinary Services to reconstruct the national mobility network. Our analysis showed that a static approach can significantly overestimate the speed and the extent of disease propagation, whereas temporal analysis revealed that the reachability and vulnerability of the different administrative departments (used as nodes of the mobility network) change over the course of the year. For this reason, several sets of sentinel nodes were identified in different periods of the year, underlining the role of temporality in shaping patterns of disease diffusion.

Adaptation of the One Health Zoonotic Disease Prioritization Tool for Government and Privately Owned Companion Animal Zoonotic Disease Surveillance

The U.S. Army Veterinary Services (AVS) provides public health guidance, consultation, and clinical support regarding zoonoses for the Department of Defense (DoD). AVS One Health Division was tasked with developing a surveillance tool for zoonoses of companion animals presenting to DoD veterinary facilities. Such a tool could help monitor the spread of zoonoses between U.S. military Service Members, their family members, and their pets. The primary objective was to prioritize zoonoses of interest for companion animal disease surveillance in the DoD. AVS implemented a semi-quantitative One Health approach to prioritize zoonoses of interest. The prioritization process followed five steps: (1) generate list of zoonoses to be ranked that are applicable to a DoD companion animal disease surveillance system, (2) develop criteria to identify the importance of a zoonoses, (3) develop criteria definition questions, (4) rank criteria, and (5) rank zoonoses. The prioritization process resulted in a ranked list of 14 zoonoses of interest which was presented to AVS leadership with three potential courses of action. Twelve zoonoses were selected for inclusion in DoD Companion Animal Disease Surveillance. The prioritized list of diseases was the first step in developing a DoD companion animal disease surveillance effort. Mirroring such an approach in civilian companion animal populations could fill a critical public health gap.

Improvement in the Surveillance System for Livestock Diseases and Antimicrobial Use Following Operational Research Studies in Sierra Leone January-March 2023.

In Sierra Leone, two operational research (OR) studies in 2019 and 2021 showed deficiencies in the data being captured by the Integrated Animal Disease Surveillance and Reporting (IADSR) system. This third OR study was conducted in 2023 to assess whether the second OR study's results and recommendations were disseminated with the key stakeholders, the uptake of the recommendations, improvements in data capture in the IADSR system, and to describe the data on livestock disease and antimicrobial use. In 2022, on seven occasions, the authors of the second OR study disseminated the study's findings. Of the four recommendations, the one on improving laboratory infrastructure for confirmation of animal disease was not implemented. The district animal health weekly surveillance reports received through the IADSR system were sustained at 88% between the second (2021) and third (2023) studies. In both studies, the proportion of sick animals receiving antibiotics (25%) remained the same, but the use of "critically important antimicrobials for veterinary use" declined from 77% (in 2021) to 69% (in 2023). The IADSR system has improved considerably in providing information on animal health and antibiotic use, and sequential OR studies have played a key role in its improvement.

Potential economic impacts of foot‐and‐mouth disease in Brazil: A case study for Mato Grosso and Paraná

AbstractThis study investigates the economic effects of foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) by employing a regional, dynamic computable general equilibrium model in tandem with results from an epidemiological model to simulate an FMD outbreak in Brazil. Outbreaks located in Paraná and Mato Grosso negatively impact other states in Brazil, demonstrating a spillover effect of economic losses beyond the region directly affected by the disease. Results highlight the distributive effects of FMD outbreaks with most of the negative impacts falling predominantly on lower income workers and households. This study shows the importance of animal disease surveillance and control and provides estimates of the potential economywide effects of an FMD outbreak in Brazil.

Animal disease surveillance: How to represent textual data for classifying epidemiological information.

The value of informal sources in increasing the timeliness of disease outbreak detection and providing detailed epidemiological information in the early warning and preparedness context is recognized. This study evaluates machine learning methods for classifying information from animal disease-related news at a fine-grained level (i.e., epidemiological topic). We compare two textual representations, the bag-of-words method and a distributional approach, i.e., word embeddings. Both representations performed well for binary relevance classification (F-measure of 0.839 and 0.871, respectively). Bag-of-words representation was outperformed by word embedding representation for classifying sentences into fine-grained epidemiological topics (F-measure of 0.745). Our results suggest that the word embedding approach is of interest in the context of low-frequency classes in a specialized domain. However, this representation did not bring significant performance improvements for binary relevance classification, indicating that the textual representation should be adapted to each classification task.

Continuous surveillance of potentially zoonotic avian pathogens detects contemporaneous occurrence of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIV H5) and flaviviruses (USUV, WNV) in several wild and captive birds

ABSTRACT Three avian viral pathogens circulate in Germany with particular importance for animal disease surveillance due to their zoonotic potential, their impact on wild bird populations and/or poultry farms: Highly pathogenic (HP) avian influenza virus (AIV) of subtype H5 (HPAIV H5), Usutu virus (USUV), and West Nile virus (WNV). Whereas HPAIV H5 has been mainly related to epizootic outbreaks in winter, the arthropod-borne viruses USUV and WNV have been detected more frequently during summer months corresponding to peak mosquito activity. Since 2021, tendencies of a potentially year-round, i.e. enzootic, status of HPAIV in Germany have raised concerns that Orthomyxoviruses (AIV) and Flaviviruses (USUV, WNV) may not only circulate in the same region, but also at the same time and in the same avian host range. In search of a host species group suitable for a combined surveillance approach for all mentioned pathogens, we retrospectively screened and summarized case reports, mainly provided by the respective German National Reference Laboratories (NRLs) from 2006 to 2021. Our dataset revealed an overlap of reported infections among nine avian genera. We identified raptors as a particularly affected host group, as the genera Accipiter, Bubo, Buteo, Falco, and Strix represented five of the nine genera, and highlighted their role in passive surveillance. This study may provide a basis for broader, pan-European studies that could deepen our understanding of reservoir and vector species, as HPAIV, USUV, and WNV are expected to further become established and/or spread in Europe in the future and thus improved surveillance measures are of high importance.

Effect of epidemic diseases on wild animal conservation.

Under the background of global species extinction, the impact of epidemic diseases on wild animal protection is increasingly prominent. Here, we review and synthesize the literature on this topic, and discuss the relationship between diseases and biodiversity. Diseases usually reduce species diversity by decreasing or extinction of species populations, but also accelerate species evolution and promote species diversity. At the same time, species diversity can regulate disease outbreaks through dilution or amplification effects. The synergistic effect of human activities and global change is emphasized, which further aggravates the complex relationship between biodiversity and diseases. Finally, we emphasize the importance of active surveillance of wild animal diseases, which can protect wild animals from potential diseases, maintain population size and genetic variation, and reduce the damage of diseases to the balance of the whole ecosystem and human health. Therefore, we suggest that a background survey of wild animal populations and their pathogens should be carried out to assess the impact of potential outbreaks on the population or species level. The mechanism of dilution and amplification effect between species diversity and diseases of wild animals should be further studied to provide a theoretical basis and technical support for human intervention measures to change biodiversity. Most importantly, we should closely combine the protection of wild animals with the establishment of an active surveillance, prevention, and control system for wild animal epidemics, in an effort to achieve a win-win situation between wild animal protection and disease control.

National proficiency test for molecular detection of white spot syndrome virus in China, 2021

National Aquatic Animal Disease Surveillance Program (NAADSP) has started since 2007 to conduct nationwide surveillance for the prevalence of major crustacean pathogens in China, including white spot syndrome virus (WSSV). Standard diagnostic procedures and reliable detection capability are critical for ensuring accurate and comparable surveillance results, hence competent authority of China launched annual proficiency test (PT) synchronously to screen competent aquatic clinical diagnostic laboratories to undertake NAADSP. Here we present the results of PT for molecular detection of WSSV in 2021. Six tissue samples containing different WSSV concentrations were provided as blind samples to a total of 170 laboratories nationwide. All the participating laboratories were asked to perform qualitative or quantitative analyses by using standard molecular assays or commercial detection kits. In the qualitative assessments, 86.8% (125/144) of the participants achieved satisfied results by using conventional nested-PCR. Comparing to the strong/medium positive samples, the identification of negative samples and weak-positive samples have been shown to be more challenging. A relatively higher error rates were reported in results of sample S3 and S4. In the quantitative assessments, cycle threshold (Ct) values of real-time PCR submitted by 47 participants had been analyzed by using robust statistical method. The overall satisfied performance was achieved by 74.5% (35/47) of the participants. Acceptable between-laboratories z-score (ZB) and within-laboratory z-score (ZW) was achieved by 93.3% and 91.1%, respectively, in the analysis of the pair of identical samples S6 and S8. WSSV-PT 2021 supplied valuable reference information for selecting competent laboratories to participate in the NAADSP. Furthermore, the national PT scheme in the study provided an effective tool to access the performance of laboratories in molecular tests, and also gathered practical experience for organizing PTs on other emerging crustacean pathogens in the future.

Data-fed, needs-driven: Designing analytical workflows fit for disease surveillance.

Syndromic surveillance has been an important driver for the incorporation of "big data analytics" into animal disease surveillance systems over the past decade. As the range of data sources to which automated data digitalization can be applied continues to grow, we discuss how to move beyond questions around the means to handle volume, variety and velocity, so as to ensure that the information generated is fit for disease surveillance purposes. We make the case that the value of data-driven surveillance depends on a "needs-driven" design approach to data digitalization and information delivery and highlight some of the current challenges and research frontiers in syndromic surveillance.

A long-term negative effect of monetary incentives on the participatory surveillance of animal disease: a pilot study in Chiang Mai, Thailand

BackgroundIn general, animal diseases have a significant impact on public health; accordingly, an effective animal disease surveillance system is an important control system that requires efficient and engaging participants in the long run. The purpose of this study is to assess the impact of monetary and social motivation on animal disease surveillance. We hypothesized that there are two sorts of motivation based on Fiske's relational theory (1992): monetary incentives (monetary markets) and nonmonetary incentives (social markets).MethodsIn Chiang Mai Province, Northern Thailand, we analyzed data from a pilot project that began in 2014 and used a mobile application to report on signs that identify animal health problems. A total of 67 participants from 17 different areas in the central part of the province participated in this study. Participants in this study were divided into two groups: those who received monetary incentives and those who received social incentives.ResultsAccording to the findings, the monetary market group's effort was significantly higher than that of the social market group during the time when the volunteers in the monetary market group were paid. However, in the long run, the monetary market group reported significantly less than the social market group. Social incentive, on the other hand, was more efficient once the payment period ended.ConclusionsSocial incentive outperformed monetary motivation in terms of efficiency and sustainability in the long run. Not only did the volunteers who were offered monetary incentive put in less effort than those who were offered the social incentive, but they were also not remotivated by the social incentive after the payment period had ended.

Assessment of facilities and slaughter figures of livestock species in Oko-Oba central abattoir Ifako-Ijaye, Agege Lagos State, Nigeria

Abattoirs are needed to centralize slaughter processes and ensure surveillance of animal diseases at slaughter in order to avoid zoonotic transmission to humans through meat consumption. Inadequate facilities and hygiene at abattoirs can result in the contamination of meat and cause occupational hazards to workers. The objectives of this study were to assess the conditions of the facilities and the daily slaughter figures of livestock species at Oko-oba abattoir, Ifako-ijaye, Agege Lagos State. The study was conducted for three seasons from August 2020 to April 2021. A structured questionnaire was used to collect information on the study area, while daily visits, physical observation and interviews were used to collect data. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics of frequencies and percentages. Cattle was the most commonly slaughtered species (92.34 %), followed by goat (6.34 %), sheep (1.15 %) and camel (0.18 %) in the late wet season (August - September). Cattle, goat, sheep and camel were slain in decreasing order during the early dry season (October - December) (90.17 %, 8.38 %, 1.40 % and 0.04 % respectively). In the late dry season (January - April), the cattle were recorded to have 88.00 %, goat 10.92 %, sheep 1.07 % and camel 0.01 %. It was determined that the season had no impact on the types of livestock slaughtered. Cattle were the most butchered species regardless of the seasons studied, followed by goats, sheep and camels. The abattoir also lacks several fundamental amenities that are expected of a standard abattoir, and those that are present are either non-functional or inadequate.

Point-of-care testing in companion and food animal disease diagnostics.

Laboratory diagnoses of animal diseases has advanced tremendously in recent decades with the advent of cutting-edge technologies such as real-time polymerase chain reaction, next generation sequencing (NGS), matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) and others However, most of these technologies need sophisticated equipment, laboratory space and highly skilled workforce. Therefore, there is an increasing market demand for point-of-care testing (POCT) in animal health and disease diagnostics. A wide variety of assays based on antibodies, antigens, nucleic acid, and nanopore sequencing are currently available. Each one of these tests have their own advantages and disadvantages. However, a number of research and developmental activities are underway in both academia and industry to improve the existing tests and develop newer and better tests in terms of sensitivity, specificity, turnaround time and affordability. In both companion and food animal disease diagnostics, POCT has an increasing role to play, especially in resource-limited settings. It plays a critical role in improving animal health and wellbeing in rural communities in low- and middle-income countries. At the same time, ensuring high standard of quality through proper validation, quality assurance and regulation of these assays are very important for accurate diagnosis, surveillance, control and management of animal diseases. This review addresses the different types of POCTs currently available for companion and food animal disease diagnostics, tests in the pipeline and their advantages and disadvantages.

Reporting on 16 years of laboratory capacity building while exploring the future of WOAH's Laboratory Twinning Programme.

Animal health laboratories are an increasingly important part of safeguarding animal and public health due to their role in surveillance and diagnostics of animal diseases, food safety, and in the development and production of medicinal products, vaccines, and diagnostic tools. Despite their importance, the global distribution of veterinary laboratory expertise is uneven, with greater concentration of reference laboratories in wealthier countries. To address this issue, the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH, founded as OIE) created a Laboratory Twinning Programme in 2006. The paper will briefly review this Programme in the context of an increasingly populated global health security field, based on a literature review and on a combination of public and internal WOAH data and describe the implementation of the Programme in the past 16 years, noting the drivers for project implementation, its links with the global livestock biomass distribution and with the current distribution of veterinary laboratory expertise. There has been broad uptake and diversity in the focus of the twinning projects implemented in WOAH Member Countries. The Laboratory Twinning Programme would benefit from an evaluation that looks at its outcomes and quantifiable impact in beneficiary countries. A case is made for the development of a monitoring and evaluation system tailored to the Programme's specificities.