Animal Disease Outbreaks Research Articles

Spiral of Silence: Consumer Attention, Media Emotion, and Pork Price Fluctuations

This study utilized web crawling and text analysis to collect weekly data from July 2018 to March 2022. Using the spiral of silence theoretical framework, it explores the relationship between consumer online attention during sudden animal epidemics and pork price volatility. The research found that consumer online attention, influenced by animal disease outbreaks, significantly intensifies pork price volatility both directly and indirectly through changes in media sentiment and consumer expectations. On the one hand, the sentiment in official media reports partially mediates the relationship between consumer attention and pork price volatility. As consumer attention increases, positive sentiment in official media also rises, exerting an indirect stabilizing effect on pork prices. On the other hand, consumer expectations also have a partial mediating role, and the volume of negative news reports from unofficial media significantly amplifies the impact of consumer attention on pork price volatility. These findings provide valuable insights into the relationship between consumer online attention and market fluctuations in the agricultural sector and offer practical recommendations for enhancing demand-side management strategies.

Being prepared for an avian influenza epidemic with a One Health approach: a cartographic study to identify animal carcasses burial sites in central Italy.

During epidemics, pandemics, or animal disease outbreaks, the large-scale disposal of carcasses presents greater environmental and biosecurity challenges. In Europe, disposal through a rendering plant is the preferred option, but the on-site carcasses burial may be authorised due to logistical and economic advantages. This study utilised a comprehensive GIS-based approach and focuses on the challenges and strategies for large-scale carcass disposal, particularly in the context of avian influenza outbreaks in the Lazio Region of Italy. Integrating data from official geospatial sources regarding presence of environmental restrictions and regulations, factors affecting susceptibility to groundwater contamination, factors affecting soil stability over time, potential burial sites were identified. The resulting map provides decision-makers with valuable information for prompt and efficient response during disease outbreaks. The study underscores the importance of a multidisciplinary approach involving veterinarians, epidemiologists, GIS experts, and geologists. Further research and international consensus are essential to standardize the selection of geographic variables/layers to use in similar projects. This study significantly contributes to the preparedness of environment, health and animal/human interface events.

Multiplex reverse transcription recombinase polymerase amplification combined with lateral flow biosensor for simultaneous detection of three viral pathogens in cattle

Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), bovine epidemic fever virus (BEFV), and bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) cause respiratory symptoms in cattle. The absence of rapid, precise, and easily accessible diagnostic methods poses difficulties for herders and veterinary epidemiologists during outbreaks of major infectious animal diseases. Considering the mixed infection of viruses, a multiple-detection method, reverse transcription recombinase polymerase amplification (mRT-RPA) combined with a lateral flow biosensor (LFB), was established to simultaneously detect the three pathogens. This technique is based on the specific binding of three differently labeled RT-RPA products (DNA sequences) to antibodies on the three test lines of the LFB, achieving multiplex detection through the presence or absence of coloration on the LFB test lines. The fluorescence values of the LFB test lines are recorded by a test strip reader. The mRT-RPA-LFB assay completes detection at a constant temperature of 41 °C within 33 min. The limits of detection (LODs) for BVDV, BEFV and BRSV were 2.62 × 101, 2.42 × 101 and 2.56 × 101 copies/μL, respectively. No cross-reactivity was observed with the other six bovine viruses. The developed method showed satisfactory intra- and inter-assay precision, and the average coefficients of variation were ranged from 2.92 % to 3.99 %. The diagnostic sensitivity and specificity were 98.11 % and 100 %, respectively, which were highly consistent with the RT-qPCR assay, and the kappa value was 0.988 (95 % confidence interval, CI). In general, the mRT-RPA-LFB assay has the potential to become a powerful tool for rapid screening of cattle diseases because of its advantages such as fast detection speed, convenient operation, strong specificity, and high sensitivity.

Biosecurity indemnification and attitudes of United States swine producers towards the prevention of an african swine fever outbreak

Animal disease outbreaks, such as the recent outbreak of African Swine Fever in 2018, are a major concern for stakeholders across the food supply chain due to their potential to disrupt global food security, cause economic losses, and threaten animal welfare. As a result of their transboundary nature, discussions have shifted to preventive measures aimed at protecting livestock while ensuring food security and safety. Emergency assistance has been a critical response option during pandemics. However, this may not be sustainable in the long run because the expectation of government bailout may encourage risk taking behaviours. Our hypothesis is that an indemnity policy that is conditioned on showing biosecurity practices would increase compliance and reduce government expenditure during disease outbreaks. We developed and launched a survey from March to July 2022 targeted at swine producers across the US. From the survey, we examined livestock farmers' attitudes and intentions regarding biosecurity investment and assessed their attitudes towards the purchase of livestock insurance and reporting suspected infected livestock on their farm. We used a partial proportion odds model analysis to examine the model. Our analysis revealed that intention to call a veterinarian, trust in government agencies and risk perception of farmers were instrumental in the willingness to self-invest in biosecurity, purchase livestock insurance, and promptly report infected livestock on their farms. This provides evidence that biosecurity compliance would increase if indemnification was tied to a demonstration of effort to adopt biosecurity practices. We also show that individuals who have been in the industry for a longer period may become complacent and less likely to report outbreaks. Farmers with a higher share of income from their production operations bear a greater risk from their operational income and are more willing to report any suspected infections on their farms. The data suggest that motivating the willingness of farmers to invest in biosecurity while overcoming cost concerns is achievable.

Time‐varying reaction of U.S. meat demand to animal disease outbreaks

AbstractThis study examined the impact of the mad cow (BSE) and bird flu (HPAI) outbreaks on the demand for beef, pork, and broiler meat in the United States from 1997 to 2022. Using time‐varying elasticities obtained from the Rotterdam model extended to include animal disease outbreaks, we found that the BSE outbreaks significantly reduced beef consumption. These reactions were indeed time‐varying, ranging from 1.312% in 2003 to 1.212% in 2005. HPAI outbreaks had a delayed reaction, with a rebound in broiler meat consumption in the quarter following the start of the outbreak. In general, the magnitude of these reactions was proportional to the severity of an outbreak.

Evaluation of rifle cartridge and shot placement for euthanizing feral swine (Sus scrofa) in traps.

Feral swine are a highly destructive invasive species around the globe. Wildlife managers commonly trap and euthanize feral swine with firearms to reduce their adverse impacts. The utility of euthanizing domestic swine with firearms has been considered when emergency situations arise such as in the event of a foreign animal disease outbreak in domestic swine. Similarly, the rapid depopulation of domestic swine facilities became necessary when the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted pork production in 2020. Evaluation of the effects of caliber, cartridge, size of feral swine, and shot placement on effectiveness and safety of the method is needed. We collected data from feral swine euthanized in traps on how those variables influenced the effectiveness in time to death and number of shots required and safety risks based on the occurrence of bullet pass-through (i.e., bullet exiting the pig). We tested 3 cartridges of 2 calibers (0.22 long rifle, 0.22 Winchester magnum rimfire, and 0.308 Winchester) delivered from a rifle with 3 shot placements targeting the brain. From 570 euthanization events, we calculated an average time to death of 100.06 (SD = 29.24) s, with larger feral swine taking slightly longer. Most feral swine (73%) were euthanized with a single shot but averaged 1.28 (SD = 0.48) shots overall. Safety risks from pass-through shots were more common when using the 0.308 Winchester cartridge, and when rear and side shot placements were used. Overall, we recommend a 0.22 long rifle cartridge and frontal shot placement as an effective and safe option for euthanizing feral swine in traps, and likely for domestic swine of similar size and shot distances.

Investigating the workforce capacity and needs for animal disease surveillance and outbreak investigation: a mixed-methods study of veterinary services in Vietnam.

The need for strengthening national capacities for disease prevention, preparedness, and response is increasingly becoming urgent. Central to this is strengthening existing systems and workforce capacity for disease surveillance and disease outbreak response. This study aimed to evaluate the national capacity and needs of veterinary services in Vietnam in animal disease surveillance and outbreak investigation skills. A cross-sectional, convergent, mixed-methods study was conducted between November 2020 and April 2021. An online questionnaire was administered to government field veterinarians, followed by descriptive and multivariable analyses to understand field capacity, specifically levels of experience in outbreak investigation and animal health surveillance. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with various stakeholders in veterinary services and interview transcripts were coded and thematically analyzed. Qualitative results were used to contextualize quantitative findings from the survey. Overall, 178 field veterinary staff completed the online survey, and 25 stakeholders were interviewed. Eighty percent of respondents reported a high priority for further training in both animal disease surveillance and outbreak investigation. Training and competence were more limited at the district and commune levels, highlighting a gap in capacity at the subnational level. Reasons included a lack of in-depth training opportunities, limited access to resources and high staff turnover. Respondents who completed postgraduate qualifications in epidemiology or Field Epidemiology Training Programs were more likely to have higher levels of experience in animal health surveillance and outbreak investigation. This study identified gaps in knowledge and adoption of practices most often related to local-level or less experienced veterinary staff with limited training opportunities in epidemiology. Findings inform the prioritization of training and planning activities to further enhance the national capacity of veterinary services in Vietnam. Underlying explanations for existing gaps in capacity include inequities in skill development and training opportunities across levels of veterinary staff, gaps in the chain of command and unequal funding across provinces.

Discovery and characterization of BRBV-sheep virus in nasal swabs from domestic sheep in China.

The escalating occurrence of infectious disease outbreaks in humans and animals necessitates innovative, effective, and integrated research to better comprehend their transmission and dynamics. Viral infection in livestock has led to profound economic losses globally. Pneumonia is the prevalent cause of death in sheep. However, very few studies exist regarding virus-related pathogens in sheep. Metagenomics sequencing technologies in livestock research hold significant potential to elucidate these contingencies and enhance our understanding. Therefore, this study aims to characterize respiratory viromes in paired nasal swabs from Inner Mongolian feedlot sheep in China using metaviromic sequencing. Through deep sequencing, de novo assembly, and similarity searches using translated protein sequences, several previously uncharacterized and known viruses were identified in this study. Among these discoveries, a novel Bovine Rhinitis B Virus (BRBV) (BRBV-sheep) strain was serendipitously detected in the nasal swabs of domestic sheep (Ovis aries). To facilitate further molecular epidemiological studies, the entire genome of BRBV-sheep was also determined. Owing to the unique sequence characteristics and phylogenetic position of BRBV-sheep, genetically distinct lineages of BRBV in sheep may exist. A TaqMan-based qRT-PCR assay targeting the 3D polymerase gene was developed and used to screen 592 clinical sheep specimens. The results showed that 44.59% of the samples (264/592) were positive. These findings suggest that BRBV sheep are widespread among Inner Mongolian herds. This discovery marks the initial identification of BRBV in sheep within Inner Mongolia, China. These findings contribute to our understanding of the epidemiology and genetic evolution of BRBV. Recognizing the presence of BRBV in sheep informs strategies for disease management and surveillance and the potential development of targeted interventions to control its spread.

Postmanufacturing techniques for mitigation of viral pathogens in porcine-derived feed ingredients: a review.

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a highly infectious virus known to cause substantial mortality and morbidity in pigs. The transmissibility and severity of disease within pigs, as well as the potentially resultant catastrophic trade ramifications, warrant its status as a foreign animal disease of substantial concern to the United States. The ASFV virus can survive for extended periods of time outside its host, and its greatest concentration is often observed in blood and organs, products that are frequently used as raw materials to manufacture porcine-derived ingredients fed to animals in the United States. Unlike ruminant-based proteins that cannot be fed to ruminant animals, it is permissible to feed porcine-derived ingredients to pigs in the United States. However, the increased threat of ASFV entry into the United States and our evolving understanding of viral transmission by feedstuffs warrant further investigation into this practice. The objectives of this review are to describe the current knowledge of ASFV survival in raw materials used to produce porcine-based ingredients, identify priorities for future research, and summarize potential options for managing risk until additional knowledge can be gained. While limited data is available for ASFV-specific mitigation, the temperatures used in both spray-drying and rendering have proven to effectively reduce viral concentrations of multiple swine viruses below detectable limits. However, some of these procedures may not eliminate the risk of recontamination, which necessitates the need for additional prevention or mitigation measures. Most published research in this area relies on direct inoculation of raw ingredient, not the finished porcine-derived ingredient. Currently, three published studies report ASFV mitigation in either thermally processed conditions (>40 °C) or ingredient quarantine (<40 °C). Virus inactivation, or the reduction of viral concentrations below detectable levels, was observed in the thermally processed study and one of the two ingredient quarantine studies. In conclusion, there is little knowledge to eliminate the risk of recontamination in porcine-derived ingredients; therefore, future research should aim to support and validate the currently available literature for the continued and safe production of porcine-derived ingredients in the event of a foreign animal disease outbreak.

Dynamics of blackleg epizootic process in the Republic of Kazakhstan

In 2012–2021, 2,030 outbreaks of acute infectious animal diseases were registered in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Among all the diseases blackleg accounted for 20.7% (421 outbreaks), which suggests that the nosological unit is of high epizootological significance among other infectious animal diseases in the country. Analysis of the blackleg outbreaks registered over the recent 10years demonstrates asignificant annual growth in the number of outbreaks (from19 to 81outbreaks) in the Republic of Kazakhstan and the disease persistence in the territory. Within the mentioned period, the average number of blackleg-infected animals per one outbreak ranged between1 and 3 animals, which proves that blackleg is anon-contagious disease. The research indicates that blackleg is a seasonal disease in the Republic of Kazakhstan with an incidence rise in autumn. The data analysis for 2012–2022 did not reveal any regular blackleg epizooties. The epizootological zoning made it possible to conclude that the blackleg situation in 6 Oblasts (which account for42.8% of the total territory) was rather tense; in 5 Oblasts (35.7% of the country’s territory) the epizootic situation was less tense and the remaining 3 Oblasts (21.5%) are disease-free. Therefore, blackleg zoning in the Republic makes it possible to use a differential approach to planning preventive veterinary and control measures, depending on the intensity of the epizootic situation. The research results will help to improve the system of blackleg surveillance, to predict the disease spread in animals and can be used to develop anti-epizootic measures.

Agri-Food Value Chain Traceability Using Blockchain Technology: Portuguese Hams' Production Scenario.

The globalization of food markets has led companies to buy products not only locally, but also from other corners of the world. This has introduced complexity into supply chains, as products have to move longer distances and pass through more companies before reaching the end consumer. The meat industry has been no different. Events such as animal disease outbreaks have diminished consumer confidence in the industry and the supply chain. Coupled with this, consumers started demanding "more transparent" meat products. This has led companies to think about new traceability systems, which continue to enforce food safety and health rules, but at the same time enhance and make transparent to the consumer the origin and constitution of their products. This article proposes a traceability system in the agri-food (meat industry) with a multi-chain architecture, among them, blockchain. The use of blockchain in the traceability system helped to mitigate the omission of relevant data for the traceability process, allowing us to guarantee the immutability, reliability, and transparency of the data along the value chain. At the same time, the system was able to reduce the time of the traceability process by giving the user the possibility to access the traced information via a unique product identifier.

DOGS AS SENTINELS FOR WEST NILE VIRUS? IASI, ROMANIA EXPOSURE

"West Nile virus (WNV) is an important zoonotic flavivirus responsible for mild fever to severe, lethal neuroinvasive disease in humans, horses, birds, and other wildlife species. Since its discovery, WNV has caused multiple human and animal disease outbreaks in all continents, except Antarctica. Infections are associated with economic losses, mainly due to the cost of treatment of infected patients, control programmes, and loss of animals and animal products. This cross-sectional study explored the feasibility of domestic dogs as sentinels to better understand risks of mosquito-borne diseases in Iasi city."

The hidden carbon impact of animal disease.

Livestock production is under scrutiny for its impact on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Animal disease outbreaks will have economic effects on producers and the indirect cost of an animal disease outbreak is the result of shifts in consumption across commodities. This shift in demand for meat products will also positively or negatively affect carbon emissions. We explore the indirect costs and subsequent carbon impact of four potential exotic disease outbreaks, namely African swine fever, sheep pox, bluetongue, and foot and mouth disease. The indirect costs are quantified under different severities of outbreak using a vector error correction model and by estimating the changes in revenues of livestock and feed markets. By associating subsequent consumption switches with emission factors, we quantify the hidden carbon impact of these livestock disease outbreaks. The indirect costs vary based on severity and type of disease outbreak. Similarly, the net reduction in supply and subsequent consumption impacts result in averting between 0.005 and 0.67 million tonnes of CO2 eq. for these sectors. A foot and mouth disease outbreak has the highest indirect costs and largest reduction in GHG emissions as it decreases the production of cattle as consumers switch to lower emitting meat commodities. Conversely, African swine fever has the smallest reduction in GHG emissions, reflecting the more industrialised nature of pig farming. Our modelling approach opens a provocative debate around how compensation to producers supports restocking and how this relates to commitments to net zero farming. Overall, an exotic disease outbreak may trigger an opportunity to switch to lower emitting breeds or species if a more holistic, joined up approach were taken by Government.

New developments in animal mortality management during disease outbreaks. Proceeding of The First International Avian Influenza Summit, University of Arkansas- October 16-17, 2023"

In the face of escalating global concerns about the occurrence of animal disease outbreaks, effective and sustainable methods for the management of animal mortalities have become a critical component of public health and biosecurity strategies. This abstract presents a comprehensive overview of recent advancements in the field of animal mortality management, with a specific focus on innovative technologies, practices, and policies designed to mitigate the environmental, economic, and health impacts associated with mass mortalities during disease outbreaks. (1) Emerging technologies for mortality disposal: this section highlights current technologies such as composting, shallow burial with carbon, rendering, and incineration that offer more efficient and environmentally responsible alternatives to traditional disposal methods like deep burial and open burning. These technologies demonstrate promise in minimizing the spread of pathogens and reducing the environmental impact of traditional methods. (ii) biosecurity measures in mortality handling: addressing biosecurity risks associated with the transportation and disposal of animal carcasses is paramount in preventing secondary outbreaks. The abstract examines the opportunities posed by centralized carcass disposal and the protocols required to ensure that proper measures are in place to protect human and animal health. (iii) Regulatory frameworks and policy innovations: a critical aspect of effective mortality management involves the development and implementation of robust regulatory frameworks and guidance documents. This section explores recent policy developments at local, national, and international levels, with a focus on adaptive strategies that promote rapid response and coordination during outbreaks. (iv) Community engagement and stakeholder collaboration: successful mortality management necessitates transparent communication, community engagement, and collaboration among various stakeholders, including government agencies, veterinary professionals, farmers, and the public. This section explores innovative approaches to fostering partnerships and enhancing public awareness and understanding of mortality management practices. By synthesizing recent research and developments in animal mortality management, this abstract provides a comprehensive resource for policymakers, veterinarians, researchers, and practitioners involved in public health and biosecurity efforts. These advancements offer a promising foundation for more effective, environmentally conscious, and sustainable approaches to managing animal mortalities during disease outbreaks.

Viability of Veterinary-Relevant Viruses in Decomposing Tissues over a 90-Day Period Using an In-Vitro System.

Depopulation is frequently employed during outbreaks of high-impact animal diseases. Security breaches in sites managing mortality may jeopardize pathogen control efforts as infected carcasses can serve as an infection source. This study evaluated the viability and nucleic acid detection of veterinary-relevant viruses or their surrogates in decomposing tissues. The used viruses were: Senecavirus A1 (SVA), feline calicivirus (FCV), bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), bovine alphaherpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1), and swinepox virus (SwPV). Viruses were spiked in three decomposing tissues (swine bone marrow and spleen, and bovine bone marrow) and maintained for 90 days. Samples were kept under two temperature conditions resembling the average soil temperature in central Oklahoma, US, during the winter and summer (5.5 °C and 29.4 °C). At 5.5 °C, SVA and FCV remained viable over the 90 days of the study, followed by BVDV (75 days), BoHV-1 and SwPV (60 days), and PEDV (10 days). At 29.4 °C, SVA remained viable for 45 days, followed by BVDV and BoHV-1 (14 days). SwPV was viable for 10 days, whereas FCV and PEDV were viable for 5 days. Overall, viral nucleic acid detection was not significantly altered during the study. These findings support decision-making and risk management in sites overseeing animal mortality.

Evaluation of cleaning and disinfection protocols for commercial farm equipment following a foreign animal disease outbreak

AbstractThis study evaluated the microbiocidal efficacy of a cleaning and disinfection (C&amp;D) treatment using stainless‐steel coupons applied to three common types of animal mortality transport vehicles when exposed to agricultural conditions. Metal test coupons, inoculated with bacteriophage MS2, were affixed to the undercarriage of three types of animal mortality transport vehicles at various locations. Coupons were grimed by maneuvering the test vehicles down a series of wet dirt roads. Coupons were attached and extracted at various points to evaluate C&amp;D performance with and without grime. C&amp;D efficacy using a water‐supplied pressure washing system and a dilute sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) solution was determined by comparing the difference in recovered viable virus between positive control coupons and test coupons. The results demonstrated a relatively high surface decontamination efficacy, with all but one location showing &gt;5 log reduction of MS2. Coupons located on the roll‐off truck's inside‐back bumper contained the highest level of grime and resulted in a 4 log reduction of MS2. There was no significant difference in C&amp;D efficacy across vehicle types, but locations impacted by grime and lack of accessibility achieved lower efficacies on average. These findings suggest that common C&amp;D protocols, when applied to farm mortality transport vehicles, are effective. Hard‐to‐access locations containing high levels of grime may be candidates for additional targeted treatment.

The Impact of Animal Disease Outbreaks on China’s Meat Imports

ABSTRACT We assess the effect of three animal disease outbreaks on China’s meat imports from 1992 to 2017, namely foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) for swine, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) for cattle, and highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) for poultry. Using system-GMM and FGLS estimators, we find that outbreaks of animal diseases in exporting countries reduce China’s import of the meat products. Additionally, we find positive trade diversion and substitution effects in both FMD and HPAI but negative effects in BSE. Although these results indicate that China can accommodate its meat consumption needs through international trade now, we are skeptical that it can continue to do so if animal husbandry practices do not improve in China. This calls for major meat exporters to improve production efficiency and reduce the prevalence of animal diseases. With increasing environmental pressure and high dependency on imported feed caused by the expanding livestock sector, we recommend a sustainable diet by encouraging less consumption of meat.

Effect of ozone nanobubbles on the microbial ecology of pond water and safety for jade perch (Scortum barcoo)

The microbial composition and diversity in aquaculture pond ecosystems are closely related to animal productivity and disease outbreaks. Interventions that alter the bacteria found in pond water can therefore affect the productivity of these systems. Ozone nanobubbles have recently been shown to reduce pathogens, improve dissolved oxygen, and influence fish innate immunity. However, little is known about the effect of nanobubble treatment on the microbial community of aquaculture ponds. This study investigated the impact of ozone macrobubbles (O3MB) and nanobubbles (O3NB) on the microbial ecology of pond water and fish health. We successfully eliminated between 90.9 and 99.4% of the heterotrophic bacteria and 90.1 to 95.2% of the bacterial DNA in our small pond water ecosystems after treatment with 0.15 mg/L ozone. According to the shotgun metagenomic sequencing, ozone macro- and nanobbuble treatments reduced the relative abundance of all bacteria in our water sample, including the dominant bacterial species, as well as Cyanobacteria. The top ten bacterial species in the community changed and were more evenly distributed within the water sample. The bacterial richness of the ozone-treated water samples declined slightly, but over 6000 species were still identified 24 h after the treatment. We also observed a rebound in the bacterial community 24 h after the ozone treatments. The advantage of the nanobubble delivery of ozone over macrobubble delivery of this gas was that the former took significantly less time to deliver the desired quantity of gas while it also greatly increased the dissolved oxygen in the water. Further, we assessed the impact of ozone nanobubbles on jade perch, and no effects were found on the fish at an exposure dose of 0.15 mg/L. This study provides preliminary information on potential applications of nanobubble technology for “resetting” microbial communities, which may be useful during disease outbreaks.

Clinical Characteristics of the 2019 Eastern Equine Encephalitis Outbreak in Michigan.

Eastern equine encephalitis virus is a mosquito-borne alphavirus responsible for unpredictable outbreaks of severe neurologic disease in animals and humans. While most human infections are asymptomatic or clinically nonspecific, a minority of patients develops encephalitic disease, a devastating illness with a mortality rate of ≥30%. No treatments are known to be effective. Eastern equine encephalitis virus infection is rare in the United States, with an annual average nationwide incidence of 7 cases between 2009 and 2018. However, in 2019, 38 cases were confirmed nationwide, including 10 in Michigan. Data from 8 cases identified by a regional network of physicians in southwest Michigan were abstracted from clinical records. Clinical imaging and histopathology were aggregated and reviewed. Patients were predominantly older adults (median age, 64 years), and all were male. Results of initial arboviral cerebrospinal fluid serology were frequently negative, and diagnosis was not made until a median of 24.5 days (range, 13-38 days) after presentation, despite prompt lumbar punctures in all patients. Imaging findings were dynamic and heterogeneous, with abnormalities of the thalamus and/or basal ganglia, and prominent pons and midbrain abnormalities were displayed in 1 patient. Six patients died, 1 survived the acute illness with severe neurologic sequelae, and 1 recovered with mild sequelae. A limited postmortem examination revealed diffuse meningoencephalitis, neuronophagia, and focal vascular necrosis. Eastern equine encephalitis is a frequently fatal condition whose diagnosis is often delayed, and for which no effective treatments are known. Improved diagnostics are needed to facilitate patient care and encourage the development of treatments.

The ripple effect of animal disease outbreaks on food systems: The case of African Swine Fever on the Chinese pork market

Research on animal health economics has emphasised the importance of accounting for the indirect economic effects of animal disease outbreaks. Although recent studies have advanced in this direction by assessing consumer and producer welfare losses due to asymmetric price adjustments, potential over-shifting effects along the supply chain and spill-overs to substitute markets have been under-examined. This study contributes to this field of research by assessing the direct and indirect effects of the African swine fever (ASF) outbreak on the pork market in China. We employ impulse response functions estimated by local projection to calculate the price adjustments for consumers and producers, as well as the cross-effect in other meat markets. The results show that the ASF outbreak led to increases in both farmgate and retail prices but the rise in retail prices exceeded the corresponding change in farmgate prices. Furthermore, beef and chicken prices also rose, demonstrating the spill-over impacts of the outbreak to other markets. Overall, the evidence illustrates that a disruption in one part of a food system can have significant ripple effects across other parts of the system.