Androgen Research Articles

Harm reduction techniques among cisgender gay, bisexual, and queer men using anabolic androgenic steroids: a qualitative study

BackgroundAnabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) are synthetic forms of testosterone frequently used as performance enhancing drugs among gay, bisexual, and queer (GBQ) men. Despite widespread use, associated harms, and the likely existence of an AAS use disorder, there is no medical consensus on standards of care for people who use AAS, with most medical providers focusing exclusively on abstinence. Individuals using AAS have developed community-based harm reduction strategies to mitigate these harms.MethodsThis paper is a sub-analysis of qualitative data obtained through semi-structured interviews with GBQ men using AAS for 8 or more weeks recruited through convenience and snowball sampling from clinical sites and LGBTQ + venues in New York City as well as through social media. Interviews were coded with themes developed using reflexive thematic analysis. Data related to harm reduction techniques were then re-analyzed through a prevention strategies framework lens of primary, secondary, and tertiary harm prevention.ResultsThematic saturation was reached at twelve interviews in the primary analysis, with men reporting frequent use of multiple harm reduction techniques. For primary prevention, men avoided oral steroids and simultaneous substance use, tried to obtain AAS from reputable sources, used “cycling” to dose steroids, and practiced sterile injection techniques. Secondary prevention methods included patient-directed lab testing for hematocrit, liver and kidney function, cholesterol, prostate specific antigen, testosterone, and self-performed blood pressure checks. Tertiary prevention included donating blood and the use of medications without a prescription, including aromatase inhibitors, selective estrogen receptor blockers, aspirin, statins, angiotensin receptor blockers, clomiphene, and human chorionic gonadotropin.ConclusionsDespite many GBQ men experiencing harms from anabolic androgenic steroids, community members have often sought harm reduction techniques in lieu of abstinence. Though many of these techniques embrace clinical reasoning and may be more broadly applicable, additional research is needed to understand the impact of each intervention on the overall health of individuals using AAS.

Screening of Optimal Phytoconstituents through in silico Docking, Toxicity, Pharmacokinetic, and Molecular Dynamics Approach for Fighting against Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome.

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is a hormonal disorder caused by excessive secretion of male sex hormones in females. Herbal remedies for PCOS are lightning up as they bypass the adverse effects and are profoundly safe on prolonged usage. The present study included a selection of 34 herbs pursuing biological effects on the uterus, and their major chemical constituents were subjected to a series of in silico techniques using different software. The proteins contributing majorly to the hormonal functions like Human cytochrome P450 CYP17A1 (3RUK), Progesterone (1E3K), and estrogen receptor (1X7R) were selected for the study. Molecular docking studies were performed using AutoDock 1.5.7. The pharmacokinetic properties were predicted using the SwissADME online tool, while toxicity parameters were assessed with OSIRIS toxicity explorer and pkCSM. Molecular dynamics simulations and free energy calculations were performed using the Schrödinger suite. Constituents with a basic steroidal nucleus demonstrated high binding energy values. An analysis of all the in silico techniques showed that Sarsasapogenin from Asparagus racemosus exhibited strong binding energies of -10.88 kcal/mol, -10.51 kcal/mol, and -9.79 kcal/mol with the selected specific proteins. In molecular dynamics simulations, Sarsasapogenin displayed ideal stability, with RMSD fluctuations below 3 Å and RMSF slightly higher than the corresponding peak of apoprotein. Additionally, it showed a favorable druglikeness profile and non-toxic effects across all screened parameters. From the list of the selected constituents, sarsasapogenin was found to be ideal, and further research on it for targeting PCOS is expected to yield promising results.

Unlocking the therapeutic potential and personalized therapy of testosterone: a comprehensive review.

Testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, orchestrates various physiological processes including sex differentiation, development of male characteristics, sperm production, and fertility. Its synthesis primarily occurs in Leydig cells within the testes, with smaller contributions from the ovaries and adrenal glands, all derived from cholesterol. Current therapeutic use of testosterone is mainly confined totreating hypergonadotropic hypogonadism, with limited off-label usage for augmenting muscle growth. This review delves into numerous studies investigating testosterone's therapeutic potential across various medical conditions as depicted in the figure given below. Of all the studies in this review, which show a positive therapeutic result by using testosterone, the most promising areas of potential usage of testosterone are anxiety and diabetes mellitus, followed by obesity and depression. By the medium if this study, we want to not only enlist the various potential therapeutic uses of testosterone, butalso promote a optimal hormonal balance, which can lead toprevention and/or better treatment outcomes for the mentioned diseases.

Plain language review: the safety of relugolix combination therapy for advanced prostate cancer.

Advanced prostate cancer is a cancer that began in the prostate (a part of the male body) and has spread to other parts of the body. This is a review of two clinical research studies of patients with advanced prostate cancer who were treated with relugolix combination therapy. Relugolix is a medicine taken by mouth that lowers a male sex hormone, called testosterone. Relugolix is sometimes combined with other medicines such as novel hormonal therapies (NHTs) or chemotherapy to treat advanced prostate cancer. In one study, patients were treated with relugolix combined with an NHT (abiraterone or apalutamide). In a second study, patients were treated with relugolix combined with an NHT (enzalutamide) or chemotherapy (docetaxel). Researchers wanted to understand what possible side effects may happen due to taking these medicines together as prescribed. They also wanted to see if relugolix combination therapy worked to lower testosterone in the same way as relugolix taken alone. Researchers found that most of the side effects of relugolix combined with an NHT or chemotherapy were mild or moderate. Side effects of relugolix combination therapy were similar to the side effects of the medicines when taken alone. However, patients who received relugolix with enzalutamide or docetaxel were more likely to have a serious side effect compared with patients who received relugolix taken alone. Testosterone stayed below 50 nanograms per deciliter (known as castration levels) for patients who received relugolix with NHT or chemotherapy. Patients who receive relugolix combination therapy generally experience mild or moderate side effects, rather than serious side effects. No new safety issues were found during these studies. Patients maintained low testosterone levels. Patients and their doctors should discuss the benefits and possible harms of relugolix combination therapy to treat advanced prostate cancer.

An introduction to the ethical and social problems of bodybuilding

since the 20th century bodybuilding has been an object of study that interests and challenges researchers in the sociology of sport (see Conquet, 2014; Tajrobehkar, 2016; Wellman, 2020) and, recently, in the philosophy of sport (see Aranyosi, 2017; Madej, 2021; Worthen, 2016). However, many of its problems are little known in the orthodox philosophical literature. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to contribute from STS studies to the posing and discussion of the central ethical and social problems of bodybuilding by contributing to the philosophy of sport or the philosophy of body techniques. Therefore, I will plant the following problems in relation to bodybuilding: gender and sexism; racism, ableism and eugenics; and lastly, fatphobia. Finally, I propose that many of these problems are generated from the indiscriminate use of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) within this sport subculture. In this sense, a precautionary framework (epistemic values, moral values, hormonal benefit principle and sports precautionary principle) is proposed from STS studies with the aim of regulating their use, avoiding adverse effects in individuals who are not professional bodybuilders.

Sex differences in elite track and field performances and inferences about steroid doping.

Females likely experience larger performance benefits from androgenic-anabolic steroids than males. We set out to determine if there were temporal differences in select athletics (track and field) records between females and males. Exploratory aims included: (1) evaluating the improvements in female and male world records over time, and (2) investigating the influence of doping programs on male and female world records before and after 1990, when sports governing bodies began to implement random out-of-competition and systematic in-competition drug testing. We collected the top 500 performances of all time for both sexes from an online database (worldathletics.org) in four running events (100, 200, 400 and 800m) and two throwing events (discus throw and shot-put). Data were stratified into quintiles based on world record ranking (1st to 100th, 101st to 200th, etc.). The temporal distribution of the top 100 female performers was significantly earlier than the top 100 male performers (year: 2000±1 vs. 2005±1, respectively; P<0.0001). Within the event, the top performances occurred significantly earlier for females in the 800m (year: 1995±15 vs. 2003±12; P=0.0007) and shot-put (year: 1992±14 vs. 2003±17; P=0.0004). Among females, world records rapidly improved through the 1980s, but following 1990, the world records ceased to improve. Geographically, there was a greater representation of countries with state-sponsored doping programs, specifically among female performances. We postulate these sex differences in the temporal distribution of top performances are likely associated with enhanced effectiveness of exogenous androgens (steroid doping) among female athletes with lower endogenous androgen hormones compared to males.

Chronic high-dose testosterone disrupts social cognition and enhances social dominance in male long-Evans rats

While increased aggression is the most consistent behavioral effect of anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) abuse, its cause remains unclear. AAS may promote aggression by disrupting social behaviors which maintain dominance hierarchies. To model AAS abuse, we treated male rats with chronic high-dose testosterone and tested social recognition, social learning, and competitive and aggressive dominance. Rats received daily injections s.c. of testosterone (7.5 mg/kg) or vehicle (n = 8/group). We tested social recognition by measuring investigation of a novel or familiar stimulus animal, social learning with the social transmission of food preference (STFP) test, aggressive dominance with the tube test, and competitive dominance with a food competition task. For social recognition, testosterone-treated rats did not prefer the novel stimulus rat (72.8 ± 9.3 s) over the familiar rat (68.8 ± 8.0 s, N.S.) rat. In the STFP test, testosterone-treated rats did not show a significant preference for the demonstrated flavor (59.9 ± 9.4 %, N.S.) compared with controls (70.1 ± 5.4 %, p < 0.05). In the tube test, testosterone did not increase the number of rounds won. However, when the testosterone-treated rat won, they were more likely to be lighter than their vehicle-treated opponent, χ2(1,N = 63) = 6.56, p < 0.05, Φ2 = 0.32. In the food competition task, testosterone-treated subjects won more often (48 rounds) than their vehicle-treated partners (15 rounds; p < 0.05). These results suggest that AAS disrupt recognizing and learning from the social hierarchy and increase the likelihood of challenging it. Collectively, these behavioral changes may contribute to AAS-induced aggression.

Suppression of hepatic steatosis in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis model by modified Xiaoyao San formula: Evidence, mechanisms and perspective.

In this letter, we comment on a recent publication by Mei et al, in the World Journal of Hepatology, investigating the hepatoprotective effects of the modified Xiaoyao San (MXS) formula in a male rat model of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). The authors found that MXS treatment mitigated hepatic steatosis and inflammation in the NASH model, as evidenced by the reduction in lipid droplets (LDs), fibrosis markers and lipogenic factors. Interestingly, these hepatoprotective effects were associated with androgen upregulation (based on metabolomics analysis of male steroid hormone metabolites), adenosine 5'-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation, and restoration of phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) expression. However, the authors did not clearly discuss the relationships between MXS-induced hepatic steatosis reduction in the NASH model, and androgen upregulation, AMPK activation, and restoration of PTEN expression. This editorial emphasizes the reported mechanisms and explains how they act or interact with each other to reduce hepatic steatosis and inflammation in the NASH model. As a perspective, we propose additional mechanisms (such as autophagy/lipophagy activation in hepatocytes) for the clearance of LDs and suppression of hepatic steatosis by MXS in the NASH model. A proper understanding of the mechanisms of MXS-induced reduction of hepatic steatosis might help in the treatment of NASH and related diseases.

A netnographic study of anabolic-androgenic steroid initiation videos on YouTube.

YouTube personalities (YP) have amassed significant followings by distributing health information. There is concern that YP involved in anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) communities are sharing information on how people should approach initiating AAS use. This research sought to explore how YP are using their platform to distribute information on AAS initiation, what information is being presented and how people are responding. This mixed methods research utilised a netnographic approach, a method adapted from traditional ethnographic techniques for the study of online sociocultural phenomena. The research included a selection of YouTube videos (n = 37) and user comments replying to the videos (n = 584). YP addressed the positives and negatives of AAS initiation (76%; n = 28 and 76%; n = 28 respectively), provided harm reduction strategies (76%; n = 28), and advice on which AAS people should use (97%; n = 36). A qualitative thematic analysis of the comments found two overarching themes: 'Authenticity, capital and the influence of the YP on their audiences' and 'The evolving landscape of enhancement and health'. Viewers engaged with the videos due to the YPs lived experience using AAS, and YP influenced the health behaviours of viewers. Many believed that the videos were useful for health and lifestyle enhancement purposes. YP are disseminating diverse information on AAS initiation which is derived from their lived experience using AAS. Harm reduction is a key component of the YPs' message and viewers responded positively to a balanced and honest assessment of AAS initiation which is perceived to respect their personal autonomy.

Maternal Obesity and Differences in Child Urine Metabolome

Background/objective: Approximately one-third of pregnant individuals in the U.S. are affected by obesity, which can adversely impact the in utero environment and offspring. This study aimed to investigate the differences in urine metabolomics between children exposed and unexposed to maternal obesity. Methods: In a study nested within a larger pregnancy cohort of women–offspring pairs, we measured untargeted metabolomics using liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry in urine samples from 68 children at 4–8 years of age. We compared metabolite levels between offspring exposed to maternal obesity (body mass index [BMI] ≥ 30.0 kg/m2) vs. unexposed (maternal BMI 18.5–24.9 kg/m2) and matched them on covariates, using two-sample t-tests, with additional sensitivity analyses based on children’s BMI. This study reports statistically significant results (p ≤ 0.05) and potentially noteworthy findings (fold change &gt; 1 or 0.05 &lt; p &lt; 0.15), considering compounds’ involvement in common pathways or similar biochemical families. Results: The mean (SD) maternal age at study enrollment was 28.0 (6.3) years, the mean child age was 6.6 (0.8) years, 56% of children were male, and 38% of children had a BMI in the overweight/obese range (BMI ≥ 85th percentile). Children exposed to maternal obesity had lower levels of 5-hydroxyindole sulfate and 7-hydroxyindole sulfate and higher levels of secondary bile acids. Phenylacetic acid derivatives were lower in offspring exposed to obesity and in offspring who had a current BMI in the overweight/obese range. Exposure to maternal obesity was associated with lower levels of androgenic steroid dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S). Conclusions: In this preliminary study, children exposed to maternal obesity in utero had differences in microbiome-related metabolites in urine suggestive of altered microbial catabolism of tryptophan and acetylated peptides. Some of these differences were partially attributable to the offspring’s current BMI status. This study highlights the potential of urine metabolomics to identify biomarkers and pathways impacted by in utero exposure to maternal obesity.

The Effects of Multiple Acute Turkesterone Doses on Indirect Measures of Hypertrophy and Metabolic Measures: A Preliminary Investigation

Turkesterone is a naturally occurring plant steroid touted for its medicinal, pharmacological, and biological properties with no reported adverse side effects compared with traditional anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS). However, this ostensible enhancement to increase muscle protein synthesis and facilitate augmented thermogenesis remains undescribed despite uninformed and potentially haphazard consumption. To investigate whether turkesterone enhances insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and resting metabolic rate (RMR), eleven apparently healthy males (23.3 ± 2.2) volunteered to participate in the present study with samples collected pre-, 3H post-, and 24H post-ingestion. Subsequent analyses failed to reveal any significant main condition, time, or interaction main effects for serum IGF-1, RMR, lipid, and carbohydrate metabolism (p &gt; 0.05). However, non-significant serum IGF-1 concentrations increased with both turkesterone conditions and remained elevated when compared with placebo. Similarly, RMR remained elevated above baseline across the 3 h assessed. Although these data fail to fully support turkesterone as a potent anabolic supplement, nevertheless, our findings are foundational to persistently tease apart this supplement’s purported ergogenic effects and underscore its favorable hemodynamic and gastrointestinal tolerability profile. Future investigations should, therein, aim to assess turkesterone-mediated IGF-1 increases on long-term whole-muscle growth across several training sessions to further substantiate its efficacy on anabolism.

Characterization of a novel and testis-specific zinc finger protein during sexual development of Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei.

Since females grow faster in penaeid shrimp, all-female aquaculture was proposed. Environmental conditions in the Pacific white shrimp did not found to affect genetic sex determination (ZZ/ZW system). The androgenic gland (AG)-secreting insulin-like androgenic gland hormone (IAG) is a key controlling factor in crustacean male differentiation. However, functional sex reversal (neo-male) in penaeid shrimp has not yet been achieved by manipulating the IAG-sexual switch. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanisms of gonadal differentiation may help build appropriate tools to generate neo-male (ZW) for all-female breeding. This study describes the potential role of the novel penaeid-specific testicular zinc finger protein (pTZFP) in the gonads of Pacific white shrimp. First, pTZFP transcripts show a male-bias expression pattern in undifferentiated gonads, which is then exclusively expressed in the testis and absent or slightly expressed in the ovary and other tissues. Besides, the knockdown of pTZFP in undifferentiated males results in smaller testes but no sex reversal. Immunohistochemical (IHC) staining of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) further confirmed that the smaller testes in pTZFP-deficient males are due to the lower proliferating activity of spermatogonia. These data reveal that pTZFP may be involved in testicular development but have fewer effects on gonadal differentiation. Moreover, testicular pTZFP transcription levels were not reduced with estradiol-17β (E2) administration or AG excision. Therefore, our data suggest that pTZFP may regulate testicular development through downstream genes regulating spermatogonia proliferation. Moreover, our data provide an appropriate molecular marker for identifying the sex of undifferentiated gonads.

To study impact of drug abuse in adolescence

Adolescent drug usage can lead to a variety of outcomes that are different from those associated with adult drug use. Alcohol is a common illicit substance in youth, and the molecular mechanisms behind alcohol-induced neuro inflammation, brain injury, and behavioural dysfunction caused by ethanol are not fully understood. In the adult brain, alcoholism is associated with a higher chance of neuropsychiatric diseases. Adolescent alcohol use can cause long-lasting modifications to the control of cytokines and the sensitivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which can impact neuropathology and behaviour long into adulthood... Synthetic androgens used for muscle and strength gain, especially in adolescence, are called alcoholic androgenic steroids (AAS). Adult neuropathology and alcoholism can be prevented and treated using AAS, an anabolic steroid.

Anabolic steroids and cardiovascular morbidity

Abuse of androgenic anabolic steroids (AAS) is associated with a range of cardiovascular side effects, summarized in this review. Apart from being linked to cardiovascular risk factors such as hypertension and dyslipidaemia, AAS abuse is associated with coronary atherosclerosis and imparts a pro-coagulative state, predisposing to thromboembolic disease. Finally, AAS abuse leads to left ventricular hypertrophy and dysfunction, which can ultimately result in heart failure. However, evidence is scarce, and further studies are needed to guide the optimal follow-up and treatment for these patients.

Decoding androgen receptor signalling: Genomic vs. non-genomic roles in prostate cancer

The Androgen receptor (AR) is known to manifest the biological actions of male sex hormones. Androgens are now known to exert a multitude of responses, sometimes contrasting, in physiological and pathological conditions. Several groups have attempted to explain the underlying mechanisms of these varying androgen responses, including the non-genomic actions of androgens. These actions lead to increased activity of pro-proliferative signal transduction pathways, resulting in rapid molecular effects that cannot be explained by the conventional model in which AR functions as a transcription factor to modulate target gene expression [1,2].This spotlight article examines Safi et al.'s research on the androgen receptor (AR) in prostate cancer, revealing that low androgen levels drive proliferation via non-genomic mechanisms involving AR monomers, while high levels suppress growth through genomic actions with AR dimers. These findings challenge current paradigms and suggest novel therapeutic strategies targeting both AR forms, particularly focusing on the role of AR monomers in cancer progression and treatment resistance.

Bioavailable testosterone and androgen receptor activation, but not total testosterone, are associated with muscle mass and strength in females.

Testosterone, the major androgen, influences the reproductive and non-reproductive systems in males and females via binding to the androgen receptor (AR). Both circulating endogenous testosterone and muscle AR protein content are positively associated with muscle mass and strength in males, but there is no such evidence in females. Here, we tested whether circulating testosterone levels were associated with muscle mass, function, or the muscle anabolic response to resistance training in pre-menopausal females. Twenty-seven pre-menopausal, untrained females (aged 23.5 ± 4.8 years) underwent a 12-week resistance training programme. Muscle strength, size, power, and plasma and urine androgen hormone levels were measured. Skeletal muscle biopsies were collected before and after the training programme to quantify the effect of resistance training on AR content and nuclear localisation. Primary muscle cell lines were cultured from a subset (n=6) of the participants' biopsies and treated with testosterone to investigate its effect on myotube diameter, markers of muscle protein synthesis and AR cellular localisation. Physiological levels of total testosterone were not associated with muscle mass or strength at baseline or with the changes in muscle mass and strength that occurred in response to resistance training in our cohort of pre-menopausal females. In contrast, bioavailable testosterone and the proportion of nuclear-localised AR were positively associated with skeletal muscle mass and strength in pre-menopausal females. In vitro, supra-physiological doses of testosterone increased myocyte diameter, but this did not occur via the Akt/mTOR pathway as previously suggested. Instead, we show a marked increase in AR nuclear localisation with testosterone administration in vitro. KEY POINTS: Total circulating testosterone was not related to muscle mass or strength before or after resistance training in pre-menopausal females. Bioavailable testosterone was positively related to exercise-induced muscle hypertrophy in pre-menopausal females. In vivo nuclear localisation of the androgen receptor was positively related to muscle mass in pre-menopausal females at baseline, but not to resistance training-induced hypertrophy. Testosterone treatment induced androgen receptor nuclear translocation but did not induce mTOR signalling in primary skeletal myocytes cultured from pre-menopausal female muscle.

Androgenic anabolic steroids and their effects on the cardiovascular system

Androgenic anabolic steroids and their effects on the cardiovascular system

Pumpkin seed oil lessens the colchicine-induced altered sex male hormone balance, testicular oxidative status, sperm abnormalities, and collagen deposition in male rats via Caspase3/Desmin/PCNA modulation

This study examined the efficiency of pumpkin seed oil (PSO) to rescue the colchicine (CHC)-induced adverse impacts on sperm characteristics, male sex hormones, testicular architecture, oxidative status, DNA content, collagen deposition, and immune expression of desmin and PCNA. Male Sprague Dawley rats were divided into four experimental groups (n = 10 each): control (distilled water), CHC (0.6 mg/kg b.wt), PSO (4 mL/kg b.wt), and CHC + PSO. After 60 days of dosing, CHC significantly reduced sperm motility (19%), sperm concentration (38%), estradiol (52%), testosterone (37%), luteinizing hormone (54%), and follicle-stimulating hormone (29%) compared to the control. Yet, the testicular tissues of CHC-administered rats exhibited elevated abnormal sperms (156%), malondialdehyde (354%), lactate dehydrogenase (73%), Caspase-3 (66%), and 8-hydroxyguanosine (65%) but lower reduced glutathione (74%), catalase (73%), and superoxide dismutase (78%) compared to the control group. Moreover, CHC induced testicular degeneration, distorted seminiferous tubules, apoptotic cells, exfoliated spermatogenic cells, reduced DNA content, decreased PCNA and desmin immune-expression, and increased collagen deposition. PSO effectively reversed the CHC-induced alterations in sperm quality and testicular function and architecture, likely through its antioxidant, antifibrotic, anti-apoptotic, and DNA-protective properties. These results suggest that PSO may be a beneficial intervention for long-term CHC users and may protect against CHC-induced male reproductive toxicity.

Development an automated and high -throughput analysis methods for detecting 64 anabolic androgenic steroids in urine using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

A gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (GC–MS/MS) assay was developed for the simultaneous detection of 64 anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS). Urine is extracted with tertbutyl methyl ether under alkaline conditions, purified with C18, and derived through silanization, Detection is carried out in dynamic multiple reaction monitoring (dMRM) mode, The overall recoveries ranged from 74.31 % to 119.66 %, The relative standard deviation is <10 %, with a linear range of 1–200 ng/ml, The linear range of endogenous androsterone (A) and etiocholanolone (Etio) is 1.7–10,000 ng/ml, with a correlation coefficient 0.9991– 0.9999. The limit of detection (LOD) range of this experiment was 0.2 ng/ml-1.2 ng/ml, and limit of quantification (LOQ) was 0.7 ng/ml-4 ng/ml, The results of testing 100 actual samples show that this method is simple, effective and feasible, and can be used for the detection of AAS, meeting the requirements of the World Anti Doping Agency (WADA)

Persistent physiological benefits from doping? Ethical implications for sports integrity.

The effects of some widely abused doping substances such as anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) on performance are well documented, particularly in the short term, and the use of these substances is banned by various sporting authorities, with athletes sanctioned from competing for up to 4 years. However, controversy exists on whether residual physiological effects of some doping practices could persist even years after discontinuation, granting unfair advantages to athletes long after sanctions have been served. Particularly, in support of the so-called muscle memory theory, growing evidence in both animals and humans suggests that AAS administration could exert long-term effects at the muscle level, notably a higher number of myonuclei. This effect could enhance retraining/muscle remodeling capacity long after AAS cessation, thus supposing an advantage for doped athletes even +4 years after doping practices have been discontinued. If confirmed, the persistence of physiological improvements resulting from past doping practices raises serious ethical concerns in the sports field and opens the door to lifelong sanctions.