Androgen-insensitive Prostate Cancer Research Articles

Exploiting TLK1 and Cisplatin Synergy for Synthetic Lethality in Androgen-Insensitive Prostate Cancer.

Cellular organisms possess intricate DNA damage repair and tolerance pathways to manage various DNA lesions arising from endogenous or exogenous sources. The dysregulation of these pathways is associated with cancer development and progression. Synthetic lethality (SL), a promising cancer therapy concept, involves exploiting the simultaneous functional loss of two genes for selective cell death. PARP inhibitors (PARPis) have demonstrated success in BRCA-deficient tumors. Cisplatin (CPT), a widely used chemotherapy agent, forms DNA adducts and crosslinks, rendering it effective against various cancers, but less so for prostate cancer (PCa) due to resistance and toxicity. Here, we explore the therapeutic potential of TLK1, a kinase upregulated in androgen-insensitive PCa cells, as a target for enhancing CPT-based therapy. TLK1 phosphorylates key homologous recombination repair (HRR) proteins, RAD54L and RAD54B, which are critical for HRR alongside RAD51. The combination of CPT with TLK1 inhibitor J54 exhibits SL in androgen-insensitive PCa cells. The formation of double-strand break intermediates during inter-strand crosslink processing necessitates HRR for effective repair. Therefore, targeting TLK1 with J54 enhances the SL of CPT by impeding HRR, leading to increased sensitivity in PCa cells. These findings suggest a promising approach for improving CPT-based therapies in PCa, particularly in androgen-insensitive cases. By elucidating the role of TLK1 in CPT resistance, this study provides valuable insights into potential therapeutic targets to overcome PCa resistance to CPT chemotherapy. Further investigations into TLK1 inhibition in combination with other DNA-damaging agents may pave the way for more effective and targeted treatments for PCa and other cancers that exhibit resistance to traditional chemotherapy agents.

New NNN pincer copper complexes as potential anti-prostate cancer agents

Eleven novel NNN Cu(II) complexes supported by a tridentate bis(imidazo[1,2-α]pyridin-2-yl)pyridine ligand were synthesized and characterized by elemental analysis, HRMS, and X-ray determination. Target prediction and docking studies indicated that these pincer complexes formed hydrogen bonds with Asp33 and Gly35 of Cathepsin D protein, which is highly associated with prognosis of advanced prostate cancer. Furthermore, they exhibited anti-proliferation activity in both androgen-sensitive and androgen-insensitive prostate cancer cells according to WST-1 assay results. Mechanistic study showed that pincer complexes arrested cell cycle progression at G0/G1 phase and inhibited Cathepsin D regulated signaling pathways. Most importantly, new pincer copper complexes significantly inhibited xenograft prostate cancer growth along with a promising in vivo safety profile. In summary, these results suggest the applicability of the developed novel pincer copper complexes as promising anticancer agents for prostate cancer treatment.

Prostate cancer addiction to oxidative stress defines sensitivity to anti-tumor neutrophils

Bone metastatic prostate cancer (BM-PCa) remains one of the most difficult cancers to treat due to the complex interactions of cancer and stromal cells. We previously showed that bone marrow neutrophils elicit an anti-tumor immune response against BM-PCa. Further, we demonstrated that BM-PCa induces neutrophil oxidative burst, which has previously been identified to promote primary tumor growth of other cancers, and a goal of this study was to define the importance of neutrophil oxidative burst in BM-PCa. To do this, we first examined the impact of depletion of reactive oxygen species (ROS), via systemic deletion of the main source of ROS in phagocytes, NADPH oxidase (Nox)2, which we found to suppress prostate tumor growth in bone. Further, using pharmacologic ROS inhibitors and Nox2-null neutrophils, we found that ROS depletion specifically suppresses growth of androgen-insensitive prostate cancer cells. Upon closer examination using bulk RNA sequencing analysis, we identified that metastatic prostate cancer induces neutrophil transcriptomic changes that activates pathways associated with response to oxidative stress. In tandem, prostate cancer cells resist neutrophil anti-tumor response via extracellular (i.e., regulation of neutrophils) and intracellular alterations of glutathione synthesis, the most potent cellular antioxidant. These findings demonstrate that BM-PCa thrive under oxidative stress conditions and such that regulation of ROS and glutathione programming could be leveraged for targeting of BM-PCa progression.

Double-layer omics analysis of castration- and X-ray-resistant prostate cancer cells.

Castration-resistant prostate cancer shows resistance to not only androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) but also X-ray therapy. On the other hand, carbon ion beams have a high biological effect and are used for various cancers showing resistance to X-ray therapy. The purposes of this study are to clarify the difference in the sensitivity of Castration-resistant prostate cancer to X-ray and carbon ion beams and to elucidate the mechanism. The androgen-insensitive prostate cancer cell line LNCaP-LA established by culturing the androgen-sensitive prostate cancer cell line LNCaP for 2 years in androgen-free medium was used for this study. First, colony formation assays were performed to investigate its sensitivity to X-ray and carbon ion beams. Next, DNA mutation analysis on 409 cancer-related genes and comprehensive transcriptome analysis (RNA-seq) were performed with a next-generation sequencer. Lethal dose 50 values of X-rays for LNCaP and LNCaP-LA were 1.4 Gy and 2.8 Gy, respectively (P < 0.01). The Lethal dose 50 values of carbon ion beams were 0.9 Gy and 0.7 Gy, respectively (P = 0.09). On DNA mutation analysis, AR mutation was observed specifically in LNCaP-LA. From RNA-seq, 181 genes were identified as differentially expressed genes (DEGs; FDR <0.10, P < 0.00076) between LNCaP and LNCaP-LA. Function analysis suggested that cell death was suppressed in LNCaP-LA, and pathway analysis suggested that the NRF2-pathway involved in intracellular oxidative stress prevention was activated in LNCaP-LA. LNCaP-LA showed X-ray resistance compared to LNCaP and sensitivity to carbon ion beams. The AR mutation and the NRF2-pathway were suggested as causes of resistance.

Spindle pole body component 25 in the androgen-induced regression of castration-resistant prostate cancer.

BackgroundAndrogen plays a critical role in the development and growth of prostate cancer (PCa) by binding to the androgen receptor, a steroid receptor for testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Androgen deprivation therapy, a clinical endocrine therapy, has resulted in increases in the occurrence of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC); however, the mechanisms of CRPC have not yet fully been determined. We previously showed that spindle pole body component 25 (SPC25), a component of the NDC80 complex that is critical in kinetochore formation and chromosome segregation during the cell cycle, plays a critical role in PCa tumorigenesis and cancer stemness. However, it is not yet known whether SPC25 plays a role in CRPC; thus, we sought to address this question in the current study.MethodsSPC25 levels were detected in androgen-insensitive PCa cells using the public database and bioinformatics tools. In vitro, SPC25 levels were determined in androgen-sensitive and androgen-insensitive PCa cells treated with or without DHT. The growth of the PCa cells was assessed by the Cell Counting Kit-8 assay. The invasiveness and migratory potential of the PCa cells were assessed by the transwell cell invasive assay and migratory assay, respectively. Gain-of-function and loss-of-function experiments examined the transfection of androgen-sensitive and androgen-insensitive PCa cells by plasmids carrying small-interfering ribonucleic acids for SPC25 or SPC25, respectively.ResultsSPC25 levels were significantly reduced in the androgen-insensitive PCa cells treated with DHT in the Public database. In vitro, PCa cell growth, invasion, and metastasis was reduced in androgen-insensitive PCa cells but increased in androgen-sensitive PCa cells treated with DHT, partially through DHT-regulated expression of SPC25 at transcriptional but not at translational levels.ConclusionsAndrogen treatment reduces CRPC growth, invasion, and metastasis partially through its regulation of SPC25. SPC25 represents a promising target in the treatment of CRPC.

Calcium signaling in prostate cancer cells of increasing malignancy

Calcium signaling controls a large variety of cell functions, including proliferation and apoptosis, and plays a major role in neoplastic transformation. Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most common malignancies in men. The transition to castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), a lethal form that is still lacking an effective cure, could be influenced by fine tuning intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) homeostasis. This study investigates [Ca2+]i dynamics in metastatic PCa cell lines that mimic the progression of PCa to CRPC: (i) well differentiated LNCaP cells that require androgen for survival, and (ii) poorly differentiated, highly aggressive androgen-insensitive prostate cancer (AIPC) PC3 and DU145 cells. In AIPC cells, ATP induces a fast rise in [Ca2+]i, due to release from intracellular stores and sensitive to phospholipase C inhibitors, while LNCaP cells do not respond to ATP challenge. Moreover, AIPC cells showed a reduced capacity to store Ca2+ in thapsigargin-sensitive stores and limited store-operated calcium entry, with respect to androgen-dependent LNCaP cells. Finally, green tea extract causes [Ca2+]i elevation and inhibits proliferation in PC3 and DU145 cells, but is ineffective in LNCaP cells. The consequences of these differences are discussed and interpreted in this study with reference to previously proposed models for Ca2+ dependence of prostate carcinogenesis.

The Dual Effect of the HDAC Inhibitor Romidepsin on Androgen Receptor Signaling and DNA Damage Repair in Prostate Cancer.

Aberrant epigenetic modifications play an important role in prostate cancer development and progression. Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) are a novel class of small-molecular compounds that have been shown to have activity in several tumor types. Some HDACi's induce a stress response that affects DNA damage repair (radiosensitization) and androgen receptor (AR) signaling (increased sensitivity to androgen blockage). We hypothesized that the HDACi, romidepsin, would increase prostate cancer cell killing through dual effects on AR signaling and radiation DNA damage response.The prostate cancer cell lines LNCaP (androgen sensitive) and 22Rv1 (androgen insensitive) were treated with romidepsin (10 nM) plus or minus 2 Gy radiation. The added effect of enzalutamide (10 mM) was also tested. Cell viability was performed by Real-time Cell assay (RTCA), whole-transcriptome analysis by RNA sequencing, western blot analyses, immunofluorescent quantification of γ-H2AX double strand break foci, and colonogenic survival. Western blot analysis was used to measure the expression of (i) AR signaling pathway proteins that included wild-type AR and its AR-V7 splice variant and (ii) DNA repair genes that included Rad51, DNA-PK and γ-H2AX.Romidepsin reduced cell viability by RTCA of both cell lines in a dose dependent manner. The addition of enzalutamide further reduced cell viability and clonogenic survival. Gene ontology analysis from RNA-Seq data in both LNCaP and 22Rv1 cells revealed that romidepsin suppressed pathways related to prostate cancer aggressiveness including the AR, MYC, DNA damage response, and cell cycle progression pathways. By western blot analysis, romidepsin suppressed AR (LNCaP) and AR-V7 (22Rv1) expression and reduced DNA repair genes including RAD51, DNA-PK and phospho-ATM levels. After 2 Gy radiation, we found that treatment with 10nM romidepsin for 24 hours resulted in an increase in γ-H2AX foci in 35.2% in LNCaP and 27% in 22Rv1 cells respectively. By colonogenic assay, 10 nM romidepsin for 24 hours prior to 2 Gy to 8 Gy radiation resulted in a significant reduction in the surviving fractions. The addition of enzalutamide resulted in the greatest reduction in colonogenic survival.Our study demonstrated for the first time that HDACi romidepsin exerted dual effects on AR signaling and DNA damage response genes in androgen sensitive and insensitive prostate cancer cell lines, and that there is an added suppressive effect with the addition of enzalutamide to HDAC inhibition plus radiation. The use of HDACi's have promise clinically for the treatment of high-risk prostate cancer, for which androgen deprivation plus radiotherapy are the standard treatments.

A new flavonoid derivative exerts antitumor effects against androgen-sensitive to cabazitaxel-resistant prostate cancer cells.

Our previous report has shown that the flavonoid 2'-hydroxyflavanone (2'-HF) showed inhibition of androgen receptor (AR) activity against androgen-sensitive prostate cancer (PCa) cells, LNCaP, and exhibited antitumor effects against androgen-insensitive PCa cells, PC-3, and DU145. In the present study, we prepared a derivative of 2'-HF, 16MS7F1924, and confirmed the effects of this derivative on PCa cells. The antiproliferation effects of 16MS7F1924 were investigated in PCa cells using LNCaP, PC-3, DU145 and docetaxel-resistant and cabazitaxel-resistant cell lines of PC-3-TxR/CxR and DU145-TxR/CxR. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and AR expression level in whole cells and the nucleus were confirmed in LNCaP by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction and Western blot analysis. AR activity in LNCaP cells was confirmed by luciferase assay using PSA promoter-driven reporter. To analyze the antiproliferative effects, cell-based assays using flow cytometry, immunocytochemistry, and TUNEL assay as well as Western blot analysis were employed. Furthermore, PC-3, DU145 and each chemoresistant strain of human PCa cells were subcutaneously xenografted. The antitumor effects of 16MS7F1924 were evaluated in vivo. 16MS7F1924 showed antitumor effect on all PCa cells in a dose-dependent manner. 16MS7F1924 reduced the expression of PSA messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein and inhibited AR activity in a dose-dependent manner, while expression of AR protein and mRNA was reduced by 16MS7F1924. 16MS7F1924 induced mitotic catastrophe and apoptosis. Apoptotic cells were increased in a dose-dependent manner, and the apoptosis was mediated through the Akt pathway. Tumor growth was safely and significantly inhibited by both intraperitoneal and oral administration of 16MS7F1924 in vivo. 16MS7F1924 had sufficient antitumor activity against androgen-sensitive and cabazitaxel-resistant PCa cells and may be useful as a novel therapeutic agent overcoming hormone- and chemoresistant PCas.

Reversing oncogenic transformation with iron chelation.

Cancer cells accumulate iron to supplement their aberrant growth and metabolism. Depleting cells of iron by iron chelators has been shown to be selectively cytotoxic to cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Iron chelators are effective at combating a range of cancers including those which are difficult to treat such as androgen insensitive prostate cancer and cancer stem cells. This review will evaluate the impact of iron chelation on cancer cell survival and the underlying mechanisms of action. A plethora of studies have shown iron chelators can reverse some of the major hallmarks and enabling characteristics of cancer. Iron chelators inhibit signalling pathways that drive proliferation, migration and metastasis as well as return tumour suppressive signalling. In addition to this, iron chelators stimulate apoptotic and ER stress signalling pathways inducing cell death even in cells lacking a functional p53 gene. Iron chelators can sensitise cancer cells to PARP inhibitors through mimicking BRCAness; a feature of cancers trademark genomic instability. Iron chelators target cancer cell metabolism, attenuating oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis. Moreover, iron chelators may reverse the major characteristics of oncogenic transformation. Iron chelation therefore represent a promising selective mode of cancer therapy.

LINC00675 activates androgen receptor axis signaling pathway to promote castration-resistant prostate cancer progression

The development of prostate cancer (PCa) from androgen-deprivation therapy (ADT) sensitive to castration resistant (CRPC) seriously impacts life quality and survival of PCa patients. Emerging evidence shows that long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) play vital roles in cancer initiation and progression. However, the inherited mechanisms of how lncRNAs participate in PCa progression and treatment resistance remain unclear. Here, we found that a long noncoding RNA LINC00675 was upregulated in androgen-insensitive PCa cell lines and CRPC patients, which promoted PCa progression both in vitro and in vivo. Knockdown of LINC00675 markedly suppressed tumor formation and attenuated enzalutamide resistance of PCa cells. Mechanistically, LINC00675 could directly modulate androgen receptor’s (AR) interaction with mouse double minute-2 (MDM2) and block AR’s ubiquitination by binding to it. Meanwhile, LINC00675 could bind to GATA2 mRNA and stabilize its expression level, in which GATA2 could act as a co-activator in the AR signaling pathway. Notably, we treated subcutaneous xenografts models with enzalutamide and antisense oligonucleotides (ASO) targeting LINC00675 in vivo and found that targeting LINC00675 would benefit androgen-deprivation-insensitive models. Our findings disclose that the LINC00675/MDM2/GATA2/AR signaling axis is a potential therapeutic target for CRPC patients.

Pheophorbide a-mediated sonodynamic, photodynamic and sonophotodynamic therapies against prostate cancer.

Anticancer efficiencies and mechanisms of Pheophorbide-a-mediated photodynamic, sonodynamic and sonophotodynamic therapies were investigated in vitro using androgen-sensitive (LNCaP) and androgen insensitive (PC3) prostate cancer cell lines. The cells were incubated in RPMI-1640 media at various concentrations of Pheophorbide-a. The media was treated with 0.5 W/cm2 ultrasound and/or 0.5 mJ/cm2 light irradiation. Cell proliferation in both cell lines was inhibited most effectively by sonophotodynamic therapy in comparison to that of both monotherapies. LNCaP cells were more sensitive to the applied treatments and the cell survival in LNCaP cell line was observed to be less than that of PC3 cell line. The results of histochemical analysis showed that there were more apoptotic cells in the treatment groups in comparison to control group. Additionally, the treatments induced apoptosis deduced by the overexpressed levels of caspase-3, caspase-8, PARP, and Bax proteins, while the expression levels of caspase-9 and Bcl-2 proteins were observed to be lower than those of control group. Treatments led to an increase in the oxidative stress markers, ROS and MDA, but a decrease in the activities of antioxidant enzymes, SOD, CAT and GSH. The results of this study revealed that Pheophorbide a-mediated sonophotodynamic therapy more efficiently activates the apoptotic mechanisms in prostate cancer cells and thus may provide a promising approach for treatment.

4,4′-Diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2′-disulfonate modulates voltage-gated K+ current and influences cell cycle arrest in androgen sensitive and insensitive human prostate cancer cell lines

The stilbene derivative, 4,4′-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2′-disulphonic acid (DIDS), an anion channel blocker is used in the present study to evaluate its modulatory effect on voltage-gated K+ current (IK) in human prostate cancer cell lines (LNCaP and PC-3). Voltage-gated K+ (KV) channels in the plasma membrane are critically involved in the proliferation of tumor cells. Therefore, KV channels are considered as a novel potential target for cancer treatment. The results of the present study show that the external perfusion of DIDS activates IK in a concentration-dependent manner, although the known K+ channel blocker TEA failed to block the DIDS activated IK in PC-3 cells. Whereas, in LNCaP cells, the higher concentration of DIDS blocked IK, though this effect was not completely recovered after washout. The difference in function of DIDS might be due to the expression of different Kv channel isoforms in LNCaP and PC-3 cells. Further, the anticancer studies show that treatment of DIDS significantly induced G2/M phase cell cycle arrest and induced moderate and low level of cell death in LNCaP and PC-3 cells respectively. This finding reveals that DIDS modulates IK and exerts cell cycle arrest and cell death in LNCaP and PC-3 cells.

RNA-binding protein Musashi2 stabilizing androgen receptor drives prostate cancer progression.

The androgen receptor (AR) pathway is critical for prostate cancer carcinogenesis and development; however, after 18‐24 months of AR blocking therapy, patients invariably progress to castration‐resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), which remains an urgent problem to be solved. Therefore, finding key molecules that interact with AR as novel strategies to treat prostate cancer and even CRPC is desperately needed. In the current study, we focused on the regulation of RNA‐binding proteins (RBPs) associated with AR and determined that the mRNA and protein levels of AR were highly correlated with Musashi2 (MSI2) levels. MSI2 was upregulated in prostate cancer specimens and significantly correlated with advanced tumor grades. Downregulation of MSI2 in both androgen sensitive and insensitive prostate cancer cells inhibited tumor formation in vivo and decreased cell growth in vitro, which could be reversed by AR overexpression. Mechanistically, MSI2 directly bound to the 3′‐untranslated region (UTR) of AR mRNA to increase its stability and, thus, enhanced its transcriptional activity. Our findings illustrate a previously unknown regulatory mechanism in prostate cancer cell proliferation regulated by the MSI2‐AR axis and provide novel evidence towards a strategy against prostate cancer.

GPR75 receptor mediates 20-HETE-signaling and metastatic features of androgen-insensitive prostate cancer cells

PurposeRecent studies have shown that 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (20-HETE) is a key molecule in sustaining androgen-mediated prostate cancer cell survival. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine whether 20-HETE can affect the metastatic potential of androgen-insensitive prostate cancer cells, and the implication of the newly described 20-HETE receptor, GPR75, in mediating these effects. MethodsThe expression of GPR75, protein phosphorylation, actin polymerization and protein distribution were assessed by western blot and/or fluorescence microscopy. Additionally, in vitro assays including epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) activity, scratch wound healing, transwell invasion and soft agar colony formation were used to evaluate the effects of 20-HETE agonists/antagonists or GPR75 gene silencing on the aggressive features of PC-3 cells. Results20-HETE (0.1 nM) promoted the acquisition of a mesenchymal phenotype by increasing EMT, the release of MMP-2, cell migration and invasion, actin stress fiber formation and anchorage-independent growth. Also, 20-HETE augmented the expression of HIC-5, the phosphorylation of EGFR, NF-κB, AKT and p-38 and the intracellular redistribution of p-AKT and PKCα. These effects were impaired by GPR75 antagonism and/or silencing. Accordingly, the inhibition of 20-HETE formation with N-hydroxy-N′-(4-n-butyl-2-methylphenyl) formamidine (HET0016) elicited the opposite effects. ConclusionsThe present results show for the first time the involvement of the 20-HETE-GPR75 receptor in the activation of intracellular signaling known to be stimulated in cell malignant transformations leading to the differentiation of PC-3 cells towards a more aggressive phenotype. Targeting the 20-HETE/GPR75 pathway is a promising and novel approach to interfere with prostate tumor cell malignant progression.

Abstract 4431: Cytotoxic effects of the Jamaican yam tuber in hormone-sensitive cancers and its potential use in green nanotechnology formulation

Abstract Historically, plant materials have been widely explored for their anti-proliferative effects against a variety of cancer cells, with many of them proving to be very effective. Additionally, their efficacy has been seen in the specific field of targeted cancer therapy. The use of plants for therapeutic purposes in place of or with traditional medicine is collectively referred to as complementary and alternative medicine (C.A.M). Several Jamaican Yam species have shown to be useful as C.A.M in the treatment of certain medical conditions such as diabetes, hypercholesterolemia and cancer. Hormone-sensitive cancers such as breast and prostate cancer are the most frequently diagnosed malignancy and when combined, is the leading cause of cancer related deaths among the Jamaican populace. These statistics unfortunately, are also reflected in the wider Caribbean region. Currently treatment involves: surgery, radiation and androgen deprivation therapy; however, there are some cases in which mutation causes further growth of the cancer cells regardless of treatment. As such, there still remains a dire need of a more effective and lasting therapy. The aim of this study was to assess the antiproliferative effects of yam material and to also deduce a possible mechanism of action in an effort to formulate a means of targeted therapy. The results showed that an alcoholic extract of the Jamaican yam tuber (Dioscorea spp.) demonstrated anti-proliferative effects in androgen insensitive prostate cancer cell lines (IC50 of 18 ppm, 95% C.I. 24-33ppm) and invasive breast cancer cell lines (IC 50 of 28 ppm, 95% C.I 36-54ppm). Western blot assays also indicated that cell death was possibly induced through the cell cycle regulatory protein, cyclin D. The antiproliferative effects and purported mechanism of action of the yam extract against some hormone-sensitive cancer cells makes it an ideal alternative for the formulation of green nanotechnology for targeted therapy. Note: This abstract was not presented at the meeting. Citation Format: Sasha-gay A. Wright. Cytotoxic effects of the Jamaican yam tuber in hormone-sensitive cancers and its potential use in green nanotechnology formulation [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2019; 2019 Mar 29-Apr 3; Atlanta, GA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2019;79(13 Suppl):Abstract nr 4431.

2019 Canadian Urological Association (CUA)-Canadian Uro Oncology Group (CUOG) guideline: Management of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC).

Castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is defined by disease progression despite castrate levels of testosterone and may present as either a continuous rise in serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) levels, the progression of pre-existing disease, and/or the appearance of new metastases. Advanced prostate cancer has been known under a few names over the years, including hormone-resistant prostate cancer (HRPC) and androgen-insensitive prostate cancer (AIPC). Most recently, the terms castration-resistant prostate cancer or castration-recurrent prostate cancer were introduced with the realization that extra-testicular androgen production plays a significant role in the resistance of prostate cancer cells to medical or surgical castration therapy.1 In their second publication, the Prostate Cancer Working Group defined CRPC as a continuum on the basis of whether metastases are detectable (clinically or by imaging) and whether the serum testosterone is in the castrate range by surgical orchidectomy or medical therapy.2 This definition creates a clinical-states model, where patients can be classified. The rising PSA states (castrate and non-castrate) signify that no detectable (measurable or non-measurable) disease has ever been found. The clinical metastases states (castrate and non-castrate) signify that disease was detectable at some point in the past, regardless of whether it is detectable now.3 Prognosis is associated with several factors that go beyond PSA levels. These include performance status, presence of visceral metastases, presence of bone pain, extent of disease on bone scan, and serum lactate dehydrogenase and alkaline phosphatase levels. Bone metastases will occur in 90% of men with CRPC and can produce significant morbidity, including pain, pathological fractures, spinal cord compression, and bone marrow failure. Paraneoplastic effects, including anemia, weight loss, fatigue, hypercoagulability, and increased susceptibility to infection, are also common. CRPC includes patients without metastases or symptoms with rising PSA levels despite androgen-deprivation therapy (ADT) to patients with metastases and significant debilitation due to cancer symptoms.

Piperine blocks voltage gated K+ current and inhibits proliferation in androgen sensitive and insensitive human prostate cancer cell lines

Piperine is an attractive therapeutic alkaloid from black pepper that exhibits a broad spectrum of pharmacological properties over various pathological disorders including cancer. Voltage gated K+ (KV) channels play an important role in regulating cancer cell proliferation and are considered as potential target for cancer treatment. However, the implication of piperine in KV associated anticancer activities on human prostate cancer cells LNCaP and PC-3 remains unrevealed. The electrophysiological and pharmacological data identifies that both androgen sensitive (LNCaP) and insensitive (PC-3) prostate cancer cells typically expressed voltage gated K+ current (IK). This current was significantly blocked by piperine in a concentration-dependent manner with an IC50 value 39.91 μM in LNCaP and 49.45 μM in PC-3 cells. Analysis of voltage-dependence of activation kinetics showed that piperine induces a positive shift in the relative activation curve in both the cells. Piperine also depolarized the resting membrane potential by an average of 10.2 mV and 8.3 mV in LNCaP and PC-3 cells, respectively. The anticancer studies showed that, treatment with piperine concentration dependently induced G1 phase cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in LNCaP and PC-3 cells. These results unravel that the IK inhibition might be responsible for the anticancer effect of piperine on androgen sensitive and insensitive human prostate cancer cells.

Investigation of TRPM4 in Prostate Cancer Cells with Novel Small Molecule Inhibitors

Transient receptor potential melastatin 4 (TRPM4) is a monovalent cation channel, mainly conducting Na+ and K+. TRPM4 is widely expressed, although its expression is most prominent in prostate and colon. TRPM4 protein and RNA expression levels are increased in prostate cancer compared to normal prostate tissue and TRPM4 was recently identified as a cancer driver gene in androgen-insensitive prostate cancer. TRPM4 is activated by Ca2+ and plays an important role in intracellular Ca2+ signaling through the initiation of an important negative feedback mechanism of store-operated calcium entry (SOCE). As a universal second messenger calcium is regulating multiple biological processes. Therefore, it is important that calcium homeostasis is tightly regulated. However, in several cancers, SOCE and its signaling components are dysregulated, contributing to several cancer hallmarks such as increased proliferation and enhanced migration. Sodium influx via TRPM4 depolarizes the membrane and by that reduces the driving force for further calcium influx. We hypothesize that TRPM4, as negative regulator of SOCE, plays a role in migration and proliferation of prostate cancer cells. We recently successfully evaluated a new TRPM4 blocker, 4-Chloro-2-(2-(2-chlorophenoxy) acetamido) benzoic acid (CBA), as a potent inhibitor of TRPM4 current. CBA blocks endogenous TRPM4 currents in LNCaP cells in a low micromolar range. Furthermore, LNCaP cells treated with CBA showed decreased viability. Additionally, two additional small molecule inhibitors were tested on the same cell line whereof one showed strong negative effect on the viability of LNCaP cells. Furthermore, DU145 cells treated with CBA demonstrated slight decrease in migration compared to vehicle treated cells. Stable TRPM4-K.O. cells were used to further study the role of TRPM4 in prostate cancer migration and proliferation. In line with our previous data using the blockers, DU145 TRPM4-K.O. cells displayed decreased migration and proliferation.

O-Aminoalkyl-O-Trimethyl-2,3-Dehydrosilybins: Synthesis and In Vitro Effects Towards Prostate Cancer Cells.

As part of our ongoing silybin project, this study aims to introduce a basic nitrogen-containing group to 7-OH of 3,5,20-O-trimethyl-2,3-dehydrosilybin or 3-OH of 5,7,20-O-trimethyl-2,3-dehydrosilybin via an appropriate linker for in vitro evaluation as potential anti-prostate cancer agents. The synthetic approaches to 7-O-substituted-3,5,20-O-trimethyl-2,3-dehydrosilybins through a five-step procedure and to 3-O-substituted-5,7,20-O-trimethyl-2,3- dehydrosilybins via a four-step transformation have been developed. Thirty-two nitrogen-containing derivatives of silybin have been achieved through these synthetic methods for the evaluation of their antiproliferative activities towards both androgen-sensitive (LNCaP) and androgen-insensitive prostate cancer cell lines (PC-3 and DU145) using the WST-1 cell proliferation assay. These derivatives exhibited greater in vitro antiproliferative potency than silibinin. Among them, 11, 29, 31, 37, and 40 were identified as five optimal derivatives with IC50 values in the range of 1.40–3.06 µM, representing a 17- to 52-fold improvement in potency compared to silibinin. All these five optimal derivatives can arrest the PC-3 cell cycle in the G0/G1 phase and promote PC-3 cell apoptosis. Derivatives 11, 37, and 40 are more effective than 29 and 31 in activating PC-3 cell apoptosis.

Ginsenoside Rg3 suppresses the proliferation of prostate cancer cell line PC3 through ROS‑induced cell cycle arrest

To investigate the potential antitumor effects of ginsenoside Rg3 in prostate cancer cells, the androgen-insensitive prostate cancer cell line PC3 was cultured and incubated with ginsenoside Rg3 in vitro. Cell number counts, cell proliferation assays and senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-gal) staining were performed to evaluate cell proliferation. The results demonstrated that ginsenoside Rg3 led to cell proliferation arrest; ginsenoside Rg3 decreased the number of cells and increased the positive SA-β-gal staining rate in PC3 cells. Cell cycle analysis by flow cytometry revealed that ginsenoside Rg3 interfered with the G1/S transition in PC3 cells. The mechanism involved in ginsenoside Rg3-induced cell proliferation arrest was then further investigated. This indicated that the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in PC3 cells was upregulated by ginsenoside Rg3 treatment. Furthermore, pretreatment with N-acetyl-L-cysteine, a scavenger of ROS, was able to reverse the effects on cell number and cell cycle arrest induced by ginsenoside Rg3 in PC3 cells. These results indicate that ginsenoside Rg3 exhibits anticancer effects on prostate cancer cells through ROS-mediated arrest of the cell cycle.