Ancient Tunnels Research Articles

Mitigating Water Scarcity in the Medieval and Islamic Periods

During the intermediate Islamic period, the settlement of Safed was transformed from a small unknown village in Upper Galilee to an important stronghold and administrative center, aggravating the problem of the town’s water supply. Lacking natural springs, Safed depended on cisterns fed by gutters that channeled seasonal rainwater from the roofs and on distant springs in the Nahal Amud ravine. As the town’s population grew, its rulers were required to install public water systems. Our field study of the region reveals several Mamluk water systems whose outstanding features are an aqueduct that channeled water by force of gravity from 'Ayn Biriyya to the Crusader/Mamluk citadel in Safed, and a spring tunnel flowing beneath the town that was accessible via shafts in the houses. The composition of the water in the tunnel is similar to that of a famous ritual bath in one of these houses, indicating a probable connection. The water systems were dated using Uranium-Thorium analysis and by radiocarbon dating. An ancient spring tunnel at the nearby site of 'Ayn al-Zaytun that may have inspired the construction of Safed’s water systems is also discussed. The archaeological finds and dating are consistent with several historical sources describing the construction of water systems in Safed.

Ancient Spring Tunnels of Jerusalem, Israel: Physical, Spatial, and Human Aspects

ABSTRACT About 210 spring tunnels were developed in Israel, most of them within its central mountain range and especially in the Jerusalem Hills. This phenomenon probably first appeared in Israel during Iron Age II, around the 8th century BCE. Spring tunnels are associated with the development of irrigated agricultural systems, landscape design and the establishment of rural settlements. This study presents for the first time a comprehensive statistical picture of this phenomenon, with particularly emphasis on the Jerusalem Hills. We have analysed statistically 21 different parameters of two types of springs in the Jerusalem Hills: 70 with tunnels and 60 without tunnels. The selected parameters fall into three categories: (1) geological-geomorphological (formation, surface slope and group, dip); (2) physical-hydrological (precipitation, discharge, etc.); (3) spatial (dispersion, springs elevation ASL, etc.). The results of this study emphasise the spatial aspects of this phenomenon, especially the accessibility to the Old City of Jerusalem. In addition, there is a clear connection between the karstic aquifer overlying the Moza geological formation and the spring tunnels. This study highlights the physical advantages of Jerusalem’s hinterland at the eastern sections of the Soreq and Refaim river basins, consistent with the rich archaeological record in these areas.

Diffraction stack imaging as a potential tool for detecting underground voids – the case of the ancient copper mines of Timna Valley (Israel)

AbstractDetection of subsurface features using geophysical methods is an important component of archaeological research. Most geophysical methods suffer from loss of resolution with depth and are most successful when employed on hyper‐shallow targets. We present a novel imaging method that utilizes summation of diffracted seismic energy in the depth domain to image the subsurface and detect areas of material contrasts, which is especially useful for detecting subsurface voids. The diffraction imaging (DI) method was validated in a synthetic case and in two archaeological sites where known ancient tunnels exist and then employed in the ancient copper ore district of Timna Valley (southern Israel). The results demonstrate the feasibility of the DI method to detect ancient underground mining galleries that connected between (now blocked) mining shafts, which in turn constitutes a significant contribution to the study of ancient prospection and mining technologies and related social and historical aspects.

Geological aspects on the sustainability of ancient aqueducts of Athens

Geological aspects of the ancient aqueducts of Athens are examined with particular emphasis on the hydrogeological and geotechnical conditions which made possible their continuous function throughout the centuries up today. In particular, the sustainability of the Hymettos and the Hadrianic aqueducts is investigated and attributed to the capture of underground water and the skillful construction of the tunnels. The geometry of the Hadrianic aqueduct and the situation in the ancient tunnel are presented based on data obtained during the resumption of the ancient work in the 19th and 20th centuries. The up to forty meters deep wells along the tunnel continue to collect underground water at many places along the twenty kilometers long path of the Hadrianic aqueduct. Similarly, the Hymettos aqueduct still irrigates the National Garden with a daily rate of about one thousand cubic meters. The stability of the ancient tunnels is correlated with the surrounding geological formations; it turns out that the stability problems of the ancient tunnels are comparable to those met in the tunneling works of the Metro lines, particularly in the Athenian Schists. A new part of an ancient aqueduct was crossed during the Metro works which is considered to belong to the Hymettos aqueduct.

Geoecological Stability Disorder as a Result of Civil Construction of Yerevan

In the period on 1982-2012 in the capital of Armenia there were done a lot of construction works. Because of civil construction activities geological layers of the ground are destroyed and the risk of seismic stability is increased. There were destroyed or concreted the ancient water tunnels which create unpredictable results for hydro geological activities of the city. Flood risks are increased because of there were blocked the entrances of artificial water chambers. In the result of concreting Getar River flowing through the center of the city there is decreased vertical air flood circulation in the city which causes air pollution increase in the city. Further satisfaction of public interests and implementation of state policy will cause future ecological disaster for the city.

2D‐3D resistivity and microgravity measurements for the detection of an ancient tunnel in the Lavrion area, Greece

ABSTRACTAt the archaeological site of Bertseko, Lavrion, Greece, the entrance of an ancient tunnel was found during archaeological excavations. Approximately 15 m from the entrance the tunnel remains inaccessible – blocked with filled material. The main aim of the geophysical survey was to verify if the tunnel is unblocked after that point and to delineate its direction. Another objective was to understand the purpose of its construction. As a first detection approach, eight 2D resistivity profiles were carried out with a pole‐pole array in a non rectangular grid, in order to image a wider area, a greater depth and to avoid several surface obstacles. Then the most promising area was outlined and selected for analysis with 3D resistivity tomography using parallel survey lines with a pole‐dipole array. Moreover, the microgravity method was used, for better resolution and verification of resistivity results. This study has shown that the influence of 3D effects in resistivity arrays, the choice of the 3D or 2D (pseudo‐3D) inversion approach, the position and the direction of the target in respect to the 2D profiles or 3D survey grid, are crucial factors that significantly affect the accuracy of the resistivity method in tunnel detection. Moreover, the design of the microgravity measurements, based on results of other geophysical methods, permits a flexible survey with a moderate acquisition time. If the geological environment is not complex, inversion of microgravity data is feasible and can be very useful, as it offers depth information about the target and can be directly comparative with resistivity models. The reconnaissance 2D resistivity survey was an important step for the optimized application of 3D resistivity and microgravity methods. The integrated results provided answers to archaeologist’s questions, delineating the direction of the tunnel with minimum ambiguity and showing that the ancient tunnel was not constructed to connect the two ancient tanks but is part of an ancient underground mine.

Water supply of Bologna (Italy) by Roman aqueduct: history, morphology and hydraulic, from ancient time to nowadays

A brief description of the geomorphological, historical, and archaeological aspects of the ancient Bononia (now Bologna) supply by means of an ancient tunnel made by Romans at the beginning of the new, era and its evolution to a nowadays when it's already used (13%) to assure drinking water supply of Bologna Town. Recent exploration of the tunnel has permitted to obtain most data of ancient water level signs and size of tunnel section in the different conditions. New data obtained by this exploration allow to build a CAD 3D model of the tunnel and in this way it was possible to calculate the realistic flow of the ancient tunnel. Mathematical model simulations indicate the effectiveness of the ancient tunnel in achieving these objectives in working condition and during the periodical maintenance.

DÜZDAĞI TUZ MADENİNDE ARKEOLOJİK ÇALIŞMALAR (NAHÇİVAN, AZERBEYCAN)

The mine of Duzdagi is a major salt dome located some 7 km to the northwest of Nakhchivan city, along the former Silk Road linking Tabriz to Constantinople. The slopes of the mine, which is still being exploited today, are dotted with archaeological artefacts, among which potsherds and macrolithic stone tools are found in quan­tity. In the 1970s, the remains of four workers were found together with their tools by Soviet miners. These remains, which lay in an ancient tunnel that had fallen in, were dated from the stone tools to the end of the 3rd and the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC (Middle Bronze Age), as the tools show significant similar­ities with a series of hammers and maces that had been retrieved from stratified contexts at Kultepe I and II. However, research carried out at Duzdagi by a French-Azerbaijani team over the last two years has revealed that the systematic salt mining probably started much earlier: the frequent occurrence of Kuro-Araxes pot­tery suggests that the mine has been intensively exploited at least since the middle of the 4th millennium BC. Furthermore, the spatial correlation of Late Chalcolithic and Kura-Araxes potsherds together with stone tools and ancient tunnels also suggest the existence of an elaborate mining system extending well back into late pre­history. No clues are as yet available as to the purposes of salt exploitation in late prehistory, but these dis­coveries mark Duzdagi as one ofthe oldest rock salt mines in the world 1.

The Malta cistern mapping project: Underwater robot mapping and localization within ancient tunnel systems

AbstractThis paper documents the development of an underwater robot system enabled with several mapping and localization techniques applied to a particular archaeological expedition. The goal of the expedition was to explore and map ancient cisterns located on the islands of Malta and Gozo. The cisterns of interest acted as water storage systems for fortresses, private homes, and churches. Such cisterns often consisted of several connected chambers, still containing water. A sonar‐equipped remotely operated vehicle (ROV) was deployed into these cisterns to obtain both video footage and sonar range measurements. Six different mapping and localization techniques were employed, including (1) sonar image mosaics using stationary sonar scans, (2) sonar image mosaics using stationary sonar scans with Smart Tether position data, (3) simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) while the vehicle was in motion, (4) SLAM using stationary sonar scans, (5) localization using previously created maps, and (6) SLAM while the vehicle was in motion with Smart Tether position data. Top‐down‐view maps of 22 different cisterns were successfully constructed. It is estimated that the cisterns were built as far back as 300 B.C., and few records of their size, shape, and connectivity existed before the expedition. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Numerical modelling of masonry joints degradation in built tunnels

Old tunnels are generally supported by masonry structure. Nowadays, these constructions present many instability problems (cracks, collapses, convergence, etc.) due to aging phenomena on both blocks and mortars. After the analysis of blocks mechanical behaviour over time [Idris, J., Verdel, T., Al-Heib, M., 2008a. Numerical modelling and mechanical behaviour analysis of ancient tunnel masonry structures. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 23, 251–263.], we try in this paper to simulate the evolution of masonry joints mechanical behaviour in built tunnels and to quantify the influence of their mechanical proprieties on the tunnel behaviour by the help of the experimental design method and distinct elements numerical modelling.

Numerical modelling and mechanical behaviour analysis of ancient tunnel masonry structures

As with all older construction, ancient tunnels feature particular characteristics, especially as regards past construction methods, geometrical design considerations and the set of construction materials used. Old tunnels usually display a unique vaulted section shape built with masonry. The present paper proposes two numerical models of an old tunnel supported by masonry; these models were developed by the well-known Universal Distinct Element Code (UDEC). A masonry mechanical behaviour analysis and numerical simulation of the masonry ageing phenomenon will also be addressed by means of an experimental design to study the influence of masonry block physical properties on the mechanical behaviour of masonry structures in old tunnels.

The ancient Lake Albano tunnel: origins and considerations regarding the hydraulic regulation achieved

A brief description of the geomorphological, historical, and archaeological aspects of the Colli Albani area, where the volcanic lakes of Albano and Nemi are situated, is followed by an examination on the problem of the policies of lake Albano regulation, by means of an ancient tunnel dating at least to the 5th century BC. In particular, it is investigated how, in the presence of even severe atmospheric phenomena, it was possible to control fluctuations in the level of the lake on the banks of which there were large settlements. Mathematical model simulations indicate the effectiveness of the ancient tunnel in achieving these objectives.

The Physical Maze and the Spiritual Labyrinth of Gide's Les Caves du Vatican

The maze motif in Andre Gide's 1914 Les Caves du Vatican is too obvious in a work of such subtlety. A carefully-crafted story that intertwines a farcical swindle with the psychological study of an apparently motiveless murder – the famous acte gratuit – all the while satirizing the bourgeois family and questioning organized religion, Les Caves du Vatican takes its characters through a confusing physical and emotional journey as it deconstructs the traditional novel. Freemason scientist Anthime Armand-Dubois's experiments with rats in a maze are described in detail only four pages into the work, and announce the author's intentions to experiment in similar fashion with his nineteenth-century characters, as he puts them into a bewildering twentieth-century mental architecture. But maze and labyrinth are technically two different concepts (although the lexical distinction is not made in French, which uses labyrinthe for both): the maze is designed to puzzle, while the labyrinth is a spiritual pathway. Gide has hidden a labyrinth in the mazes that mock the scientism of the Naturalists all the while evoking classical mythology. He intertwines the physical and the spiritual in many of his works, and Les Caves du Vatican is no exception; in the opening lines, the rheumatic Anthime announces his departure for Rome to seek medical help, to which his Catholic brother-in-law Julius replies that in Rome he should be seeking a remedy for his soul, not his body. The presence of a physical maze as well as a spiritual labyrinth metaphor in Les Caves du Vatican should hardly be surprising, given Gide's lifelong attempts to reconcile his physical and spiritual selves. Indeed, it is argued in this article that the spiritual labyrinth of French cathedrals, particularly that of Chartres, offers both the key to the novel's composition and a better reading of the spatial and emotional journeys of the characters than the obvious physical mazes of the work. The title of Les Caves du Vatican is where allusions to labyrinths and mazes begin. Caves has several possible interpretations; ut its principal meaning and the one that would first occur to the reader beginning the novel is 'cellars'. When associated with the Vatican, it suggests a catacomb-like network of ancient tunnels, but no action takes place therein. The misleading, empty title – cave also means 'hollow' – may be read as a hint that the underlying labyrinth motif is not merely physical. The Vatican cellars in the Les Caves du Vatican are mentioned only in a swindler's story, and the reader is forced to look for other meanings of cave and, perhaps, of labyrinth. By calling the work a sotie, Gide draws attention not only to the satirical intention of Les Caves du Vatican, but also associates it

Archaeology: Ancient tunnel keeps biblical date

Archaeology: Ancient tunnel keeps biblical date

Speleothem deposits developed in caves and tunnels of Deccan-Trap basalts, Maharashtra, India

Calcite speleothems composed of stalactites of about 1/2 cm to 1 1/2 cm in length and stalagmites of approximately 15 cm are found in the ancient caves and tunnels in the Deccan-Trap basalts. Thin-section analysis reveals that they dominantly consist of clay-rich micrite, microspar, or sparry calcite layers. These layers are either finely laminated and planar, or irregular and exhibit sutured contacts.