Ancient South Arabian Research Articles

Seals from Ancient South Arabia: A Preliminary Analysis

Abstract There exists widespread evidence that the Near Eastern societies manufactured seals. However, among these, South Arabian seals remain largely neglected while performing various particularly revealing functions. For instance, the practice of sealing allowed for the explicit expression of ownership as well as the act of witnessing in legal matters. More broadly, seals were a means of articulating individual identities and reinforcing communal belonging. This paper is the first study on the seals of ancient South Arabia after the unpublished Ph.D. dissertation by Diana P. Wong (1999. “Stamp Seals of the Ancient Yemen.” Unpublished PhD diss., Berkely). It investigates a corpus comprising 85 published seals currently held in museums and private collections across three continents. After providing a brief survey of the region’s history, this article analyses the epigraphic and iconographic content carved on the corpus, offering some reflections on the typology and characteristics of the seals, as well as on the society of ancient South Arabia.

Incense from Sheba for the Jerusalem Temple

In Eilat Mazar’s excavations in the Ophel in Jerusalem, a partially preserved inscription engraved on the shoulder of a pithos was found in 2012 in a context dated to the 10th century BCE. Although close to a dozen interpretations of the inscription have been offered over time, its reading remains highly disputed. All of these interpretations consider the script to be Canaanite. In this study, it is argued that the inscription was engraved in the Ancient South Arabian script and that its language is Sabaean. The inscription reads “ ]šy ladanum 5.” The aromatic ladanum (Cistus ladaniferus), rendered as lḏn in the inscription, is most probably שׁ ְ חֵ לֶ ת (šǝḥēlet), the second component of incense according to Exod 30:34. The inscription was engraved before the locally made vessel was fired, leading to the conclusion that a Sabaean functionary entrusted with aromatic components of incense was active in Jerusalem by the time of King Solomon.

Recognition and Translation of Ancient South Arabian Musnad Inscriptions

Recognition and Translation of Ancient South Arabian Musnad Inscriptions

The Origin and Character of God: Ancient Israelite Religion through the Lens of Divinity, Yahweh before Israel: Glimpses of History in a Divine Name and Yahweh: Origin of a Desert God

The Origin and Character of God: Ancient Israelite Religion through the Lens of Divinity, Yahweh before Israel: Glimpses of History in a Divine Name and Yahweh: Origin of a Desert God

Aspects of criminal law in Ancient South Arabia

Aspects of criminal law in Ancient South Arabia

The Literary History of 2 Sam 8:1b–14 and the Old Sabaic Royal Summary Inscription RES 3945/3946

Abstract In this essay, I explore the literary background of 2 Sam 8:1b–14. The Old Sabaic royal summary inscription RES 3945/3946 exhibits significant structural and compositional parallels to the summary account of David’s achievements. I argue that the quantity and quality of such similarities firmly locates the writing practices underlying the literary history of 2 Sam 8:1b–14 within a scribal tradition of narrating royal accomplishments shared in Israel and Ancient South Arabia. Based on this historical approximation, it is possible to revisit the problem of the passage’s literary shape and position within the book of Samuel.

A Greek-speaking Jew in the land of the Ḥimyarites?

Some scholars believe that ‘genuine’ Jews were present in Yemen as early as the 10th to the 6 th century BCE. The Ḥimyarite Kingdom saw another phase of Judaization between the 4th and 6th centuries CE. The history of Judaism in Southern Arabia is interlinked with the other two major religions of our time, namely Christianity and Islam, both of which were also practised in the area. The spread of the religions was inevitable as the interconnectedness of cultures and religions increased through political and trade relationships. This paper focuses on the nature of the ‘non-converted’ Jewish community in Yemen. The discovery of a Greek inscription in the ruins of a synagogue at Qanī (South Yemen) adds additional knowledge about the nature of the Jews of Ḥimyar. Is this an isolated case? When and where were the Jews exposed to the Greek culture? In 1936 and 1937, Mazar revealed a remarkable system of tombs in Bĕţ Śĕ̕̕̕ ‘ārīm (Qiryat Tib’on) in northern Israel (near Haifa) and showed that these tombs were those of the Jews of Ḥimyar. The cemetery served as a burial place for Jews from various regions after the diaspora in late antiquity. It is furthermore ‘notable that the inscriptions at the Ḥimyari tombs in Bĕţ Śĕ̕̕̕ ‘ārīm are in Greek, next to an interlacing of Epigraphic South Arabian script. Apparently, it often happened that Jews of Ḥimyar sent the bodies of their relatives to be buried in Israel. A review and analysis of the historical literature will be employed. An epigraphic and archaeological approach illuminates this investigation.

Ancient South arabian inscription BynM 5: A new interpretation and semitic parallels

AbstractThe subject of this article is the Sabaic inscription BynM 5 and a new interpretation is proposed considering Ancient South Arabian and other Semitic sources. The document is a funerary stela concluding with a curse. It is suggested that this curse reflects a magical belief which can be closely compared to Qur 113, 4. This contributes to shed light on the ancient Arabian magical practices.

A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Languages. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World

A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Languages. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World

The Minaeans after Maʿīn? The latest presently dateable Minaic text and the God of Maʿīn

AbstractHistorians of Ancient South Arabia have long questioned when the Minaean Kingdom collapsed and when the Minaean people disappeared thereafter. Scholarship presently leans towards dating the fall to sometime in the first century AD with the Minaeans dissipating shortly thereafter. Relevant for the question of the Minaeans’ disappearance is the Minaic RyIIIb stick inscription called L 53, which I decipher here. Based on a new paleographical dating system for RyIIIb inscriptions that I have developed, L 53 appears to date between the first to third centuries AD. This would make it the latest dateable Minaic text and quite possibly place its origins to after the fall of the Kingdom of Maʿīn. The text also contains the first attestations of the first person plural independent pronoun “we” nḥn in Ancient South Arabian in addition to a new divine moniker “the God of Maʿīn” (ʾlh mʿn). L 53 therefore might attest to a continuing Minaean linguistic and religious identity after the fall of their kingdom, which may be corroborated by Ptolemy’s statement that the Minaeans were a “great people” in the second century AD.

The servant of the king : Qatabanic 'gr in light of Ancient South Arabian and Semitic

The servant of the king : Qatabanic 'gr in light of Ancient South Arabian and Semitic

Water and power in South Arabia: the excavation of “Monumental Building 1” (MB1) at Sumhuram (Sultanate of Oman)

AbstractThe ancient port city of Sumhuram (Dhofar Governorate, Sultanate of Oman) has been the focus of over 20 years of research by the Italian Mission to Oman (IMTO), University of Pisa, in collaboration with the Office of the Adviser to His Majesty the Sultan for Cultural Affairs (Muscat‐Salalah, Sultanate of Oman). Excavation has revealed most of the town layout, leading to the identification of several buildings, alleyways, squares and workshops, among which two massive buildings stand out, significantly named by the excavators as “Monumental Building” 1 and 2 (MB1 and MB2). This paper presents the results of the excavation inside MB1, characterised by the presence of the only well discovered within the city walls, which was previously interpreted alternatively as a palace or as a temple. The architectural development of the building, its distinctive features, the archaeological material discovered inside it, and its chronology will be discussed. These results highlight the absence of fitting parallels from other ancient South Arabian towns. Overall, it is clear that access to, management of, and control over the water supply of the town represented a key asset which justified the huge investment in workforce and building materials that is reflected in the monumental architecture of this edifice.

Some Reflections on the Ancient Metallurgy of Sumhuram (Sultanate of Oman)

Abstract Multidisciplinary research on the metallurgy-related items and features from the ancient South Arabian harbour of Sumhuram, in southern Oman, have shed light on ancient copper and iron production and use at the site, pointing out what appears to be a definitely unusual practice in particular for what concerns copper alloying. In this paper, the archaeometallurgical data are summarised and discussed with the aim of showing that the existence of a copper working tradition specific to South Arabian centres can be tentatively postulated and that at least two different networks of metal production and exchange probably existed, centred on the opposite sides of the southern Arabian Peninsula.

Merchant and marauder—The adventures of a Sabaean clansman

AbstractTen years ago, a Sabaean inscription on a votive plaque of bronze was made known—immediately attracting the attention of the scholarly world because of its historical implications. This text, which has been given the sigla BL‐Nashq ? and Demirjian 1, respectively, by the editors, speaks—among others—about a commercial journey of its author to the north of the Arabian Peninsula—as far as Gaza, Judah, and even Cyprus. While the key message of this account is quite clear, a controversial discussion has evolved around the date of the “war between Chaldaea and Greece” mentioned in the text, thus yielding inconsistent proposals stretching from the seventh up to the early fourth century BC. In the search for possible synchronisms of the events mentioned in the text, however, clear parallels from Ancient South Arabia have almost been neglected. In a number of mostly Minaic inscriptions, first of all RES 3022, some striking lexical and formulaic isoglosses with the Sabaic text can be made out which can hardly be explained by coincidence. A thorough reconsideration of these texts will demonstrate that the events described in BL‐Nashq ? = Demirjian 1 could have found resonance in other documents from the region—resulting in a consistent chronological framework for all involved texts. In conclusion, we may watch the story of a Sabaean official in his commercial and diplomatic involvement with northern Arabia and the Levant in the shadow of political tensions within the Achaemenid Empire in the late fifth–early fourth century BCE.

A short review of Southern Arabian thrones and stone furniture

The article describes southern Arabian thrones and other stone furniture, some well preserved, and some in fragments. The number of finds, their forms and decoration evidence the importance of thrones in the religious and political spheres and artistic culture in ancient South Arabia. They also recall the famous story of the Queen of Sheba’s throne recounted in the Qur’ān (Q 27.23, 38, 41, 42) and dealt with in Islamic mysticism. A short description of the various types of thrones and stone furniture is provided. Southern Arabian inscriptions linked to thrones are cited and some interpretations for the function of the thrones are proposed.

Studies of the Institute of Oriental Studies RAS in Yemen

The article is devoted to the works of Soviet and Russian archeologists and orientalists in the Republic of Yemen, which started in 1983 and was interrupted by the civil war in 2014. The main research was focused on the identification and study of historical monuments of Yemen from the Paleolithic to the Middle Ages, and also on the study of local linguistic dialects and folklore. A significant part of the work was the investigations of the ancient Hadrami port-city of Qana’, ancient settlements in the Raybun Oasis and settlement Sabir near Aden, which made it possible to establish the characteristics of the material and intellectual life of the population of ancient South Arabia, as well as to identify trade relations with the neighboring and long-distance regions of the Mediterranean, the Arab-Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean.

Rise and fall of Maritime Hubs in Pre-Islamic Arabia

Since prehistoric times, the geography of the Arabian Peninsula had a great impact on the growth and development of centers of civilization and maritime hubs. Indeed, starting from the third millennium BC, a number of urban centers of civilization have emerged in the Arab region such as Mesopotamia, Magān (old name of Oman), Dilmun (Bahrain), Pharaonic Egypt, Phoenicia, the Nabataeans, and the ancient South Arabia (Yemen) where such centers reached a high level of development and growth. Arab trade reached a peak in the 1st millennium BC due to the commerce of frankincense and myrrh. The Arabs, who had mastered sea navigation through geographical and astronomical knowledge and had a great experience of maritime routes as well as the secrets of the monsoon and boat industry, dominated the vast eastern trade. During the fourth century AD, the world began to see signs of serious conflicts with religious dimensions and huge political and economic consequences. Furthermore, the lucrative Arab trade of incense lost its importance because of the demise of paganism in the Middle East and Europe. With the emergence of Islam, the Arabs regained their lost maritime domination in the Indian Ocean.

Rise and fall of Maritime Hubs in Pre-Islamic Arabia

Since prehistoric times, the geography of the Arabian Peninsula had a great impact on the growth and development of centers of civilization and maritime hubs. Indeed, starting from the third millennium BC, a number of urban centers of civilization have emerged in the Arab region such as Mesopotamia, Magān (old name of Oman), Dilmun (Bahrain), Pharaonic Egypt, Phoenicia, the Nabataeans, and the ancient South Arabia (Yemen) where such centers reached a high level of development and growth. Arab trade reached a peak in the 1st millennium BC due to the commerce of frankincense and myrrh. The Arabs, who had mastered sea navigation through geographical and astronomical knowledge and had a great experience of maritime routes as well as the secrets of the monsoon and boat industry, dominated the vast eastern trade. During the fourth century AD, the world began to see signs of serious conflicts with religious dimensions and huge political and economic consequences. Furthermore, the lucrative Arab trade of incense lost its importance because of the demise of paganism in the Middle East and Europe. With the emergence of Islam, the Arabs regained their lost maritime domination in the Indian Ocean.

South Arabian zabūr script in the Gulf: some recent discoveries from Mleiha (Sharjah, UAE)

While the so‐called Hasaitic script in the Gulf region has long been understood as being an influence from South Arabia, the actual reason for, and the way of, adapting the Ancient South Arabian script in that region has remained a matter of dispute. Recent finds from Mleiha may now contribute to clarify this picture. The two objects, a small tablet of silver and the fragment of an amphora, are inscribed with a script that is neither Hasaitic in its common form (i.e. a close relative of the Ancient South Arabian monumental or musnad script) nor Aramaic, but rather a derivative of the so‐called minuscule script or zabūr from Ancient South Arabia. The discovery of this script, which was used for everyday correspondence in ancient Yemen, is thus far unparalleled in the Gulf region. The paper provides a first decipherment and interpretation of the two inscriptions and draws some preliminary conclusions on the development of writing in the region.

Two Old South Arabian Inscriptions: Early and Late

Over the years, Professor Abdel Moneim A.H. Sayed and I have shared our interests in the mysterious ancient cultures and civilizations on both sides of the Red Sea: in Punt, in the Horn of Africa (broadly speaking), whence the resourceful ancient Egyptians obtained all across precious goods by trade with its people, notably aromatics, rare timbers and gold through the centuries; and in Ancient South Arabia, with its astonishing civilizations based on the Kingdoms of Saba, Ma’in, Qataban and Hadramaut and lesser entities, with their pioneering irrigation-agriculture and fabled trade, again in the aromatics so eagerly sought by other peoples in the Near East and around the East Mediterranean across many centuries.