Ancient Near East Research Articles

A. B. Ranovich’s “Essay on the History of Ancient Hebrew Religion” in the Context of Disputes about the Formation Stage of Ancient Eastern Societies (Late 1930s – Early 1940s)

The article analyzes the materials of the discussion of the monograph by A. B. Ranovich, “Essays of the History of the Ancient Hebrew Religion”, submitted in 1939 for defense as a doctoral thesis. These materials, previously held in the archives of the USSR Higher Attestation Commission, have not been widely circulated in the scholarly community. It is imperative to introduce these materials into academic discourse to aid in the study of the development of Soviet historical science. The materials shed light on A. B. Ranovich’s role in advancing the Soviet model for studying early Christianity. They reveal that his initial attempt to obtain the degree of candidate of sciences was unsuccessful in 1935, and he finally attained the degree in 1938. In March 1939, he successfully defended his dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Historical Sciences at a meeting of the Academic Council of the Faculty of History of Moscow State University. Moreover, the materials illustrate the intricate process of forming the Soviet canon of formation theory and the functioning mechanisms of the community of Soviet historians of antiquity. Specifically, Ranovich’s defense of his doctoral dissertation highlights the conflict between Moscow and Leningrad scholars, with both organizational and conceptual dimensions. The critique of Ranovich’s dissertation by V. V. Struve brings to light a new stage of debate on the formational affiliation of ancient Eastern societies, a fundamental question for Soviet historical science in the 1930s. This debate aligns with the longstanding dispute between Academician N. M. Nikolsky and V. V. Struve, wherein the deputy editor-in-chief of JAH took the position of Academician N. M. Nikolsky.

Особенности интерпретации дастана и мифологические отступления (на материале «Сказа-ния о дочери Шана» Микаиля Башту)

This article examines the images of mythological characters and interprets the text of the dastan “The Tale of Shan’s Daughter” from the point of view of folklore studies. The author of the dastan is considered being the ancient Bulgarian poet and educator Mikail Bashtu. The author solves the super-task of his dastan - the conversion of a pagan to the Muslim faith - with the help of several artistic techniques, among which an important place is occupied by a dream, which is equally characteristic of archaic folklore and ancient Eastern literature. Forces of good and evil, love and rejection, procreation, expressed by the concept of “woman” point to the most ancient layers of traditional everyday culture of the Turks, and the transformation of these images into divine forc-es of the Islamic persuasion allows us to trace how the Turkic peoples passed from one religious hypostasis to another. The genre definition of the work is determined through the analysis of its poetics. In particular, the features of the plot structure and artistic language are considered.

From the Chattel to the Cattle: Human and Animal Laborers in Ancient Israel and Its Context

Abstract In many cultures through history, subjugated human and animal laborers have been treated alike. However, very little research has explored this connection in relation to ancient Israel and Judah or ancient West Asia more broadly. In this article, I analyze the interconnections between institutions of human and animal labor according to biblical and other West Asian evidence. Physically, slaves and livestock were subjected to the same body modifications (such as brandings and piercings) and the same physical beatings. Economically, both groups were central to transactions, being bought, sold, or forcibly taken, and laboring for their masters. Socially, both groups were drawn in to participate in societies and nations, and they were precariously situated in kinship groups. Psychologically, both may have been kept in place by their masters’ Social Dominance Orientation, and slaves may have been animalized to justify their treatment. In these ways, institutions of human and animal labor were entangled and mutually reinforcing, leading to the subjugation of both the chattel and the cattle.

Assessment of needs, challenges, and re-design considerations for culturally sensitive provision and delivery of palliative care supports and services for older adults who prefer to age and die in place in diverse India.

As the global older adult population continues to grow, challenges related to managing multiple chronic conditions (MCCs) or multimorbidity underscore the growing need for palliative care. Palliative care preferences and needs vary significantly based on context, location, and culture. As a result, there is a need for more clarity on what constitutes palliative care in diverse settings. Our objective was to present an international perspective on palliative care in India, a culturally diverse and large ancient Eastern middle-income country. In this narrative review article, we considered three questions when re-designing palliative care for older adults aging-in-place in India: (I) what are the needs for palliative care for persons and their families? (II) Which palliative care domains are essential in assessing improvements in the quality of life (QoL)? (III) What patientreported measures are essential considerations for palliative care? To address these questions, we provide recommendations based on the following key domains: social, behavioral, psychological, cultural, spiritual, medical, bereavement, legal, and economic. Using an established and widely reported conceptual framework on aging and health disparities, we provide how these domains map across multiple levels of influence, such as individual or family members, community, institutions, and health systems for achieving the desired QoL. For greater adoption, reach, and accessibility across diverse India, we conclude palliative care must be carefully and systematically re-designed to be culturally appropriate and community-focused, incorporating traditions, individual preferences, language(s), supports and services from educational and health institutions, community organizations and the government. In addition, national government insurance schemes such as the Ayushman Bharat Yojna can include explicit provisions for palliative care so that it is affordable to all, regardless of ability to pay. In summary, our considerations for incorporating palliative care domains to care of whole person and their families, and provision of supports of services from an array of stakeholders broadly apply to culturally diverse older adults aging in place in India and around the globe who prefer to age and die in place.

Marriage and Family Relations in Ancient Eastern Civilizations

This article examines the relationships related to marriage and family in the countries of the Ancient East. Their specifics in Ancient Egypt, Babylon, Ancient India and Ancient China are presented. Their study makes it possible to reach the genesis and trace and better explain the development of marriage and family relations.

Religion and mental health: an Eastern Mediterranean region perspective.

In the last decade, spirituality gained increasing recognition, with an individualized approach to the significance of symptoms and the purpose of treatment. Many psychiatrists started adopting the term "biopsychosocial-spiritual" management. Modern psychological therapies have drawn from the principles of ancient Eastern traditions. However, the spiritual beliefs within Islam and their impact on mental well-being have yet to be studied sufficiently. The Eastern Mediterranean region is largely Muslim and shares similar cultural beliefs. This paper explores some of these beliefs and their impact on perceptions of mental health and help-seeking behavior. The paper will focus primarily on the religious ideologies, the concepts of punishment and reward from Allah (God) in the context of the high stigma associated with mental illness in the region, and the knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions toward people with mental illness. We will explore cultural beliefs in possession, evil eye, and black magic and how they influence treatment adherence. Traditional and faith healers remain very popular in this part of the world and are often the first line of treatment for people presenting with mental illness. Suicide and self-harming are particularly sensitive areas due to their religious implications in life and death, as well as the afterlife. Despite the global interest in the Eastern Mediterranean region, there still is a shortage of research on the intercultural aspects of this region, especially regarding mental health assessments. In this regard, we will explore some published literature from Qatar and draw comparisons with regional findings.

The Tropical Turn: Agricultural Innovation in the Ancient Middle East and the Mediterranean

The Tropical Turn: Agricultural Innovation in the Ancient Middle East and the Mediterranean

Silk-ma Mixed Woven Textiles in East Asian History

Mixed woven textile (交織物) is a textile woven with yarns of two or more different fibres, in which each yarn contains only one type of fibre. Silk and ma (麻, a Chinese character used to name mainly bast and leaf fibres) are two kinds of the earliest fibre materials used in East Asia. They were opposite in properties, usage and social status in ancient East Asian society where cultures shared the same origin and social hierarchy was extremely rigid under the influence of Confucianism. However, they were woven into silk-ma mixed woven textiles as early as 2355±45 BP in China, as attested by the discovery of archaeological fabric fragments woven with silk and ramie-hemp threads. Archaeological artefacts and ancient documents of silk-ma mixed woven textiles are seldom discovered or recognized, most probably not because of their rare existence in history but because of the lack of precise identification. This paper will share historical evidence of silk-ma mixed woven textiles in the Chinese mainland, the Korean peninsula and the Japanese archipelago, summarize their features and reveal the possible reasons for their elusive presence.

THE SEVEN-LEVEL HUMAN AS A BASIS FOR UNDERSTANDING HEALTH

The health crisis is deepening due to the lack of a holistic view of the human being, necessitating a reevaluation of approaches to holistic health, transcending the medieval notion of the unity of spirit, soul, and body, which remains relevant to this day. A deeper understanding of the holistic essence of humans and their health can be found in the seven-level system, references to which are found in ancient Eastern traditions. In Western culture, the concept of sevenfoldness is also present in the works of medieval mystics, particularly the German thinker Jakob Böhme. The purpose of this article is to analyze the seven qualities of the Spirit, described by Böhme as his empirical experience of knowing God, which can serve as the basis for the concept of the seven-level structure of humans and their health. The analysis of the divine qualities described by Böhme, such as cold, heat, bitterness, sweetness, acidity, and saltiness, showed that separately, under certain conditions, they can cause human diseases. The seven types of Spirit classified by Böhme combine primary qualities into flexible, changing fluid groups that form certain states and can serve as the basis for the structuring of the seven-level human. Each of these seven qualities has its structure: each subsequent one absorbs and is based on the previous one. The first three qualities correspond to the earthly manifestation of humans in the physical, emotional, and active spheres of life. The fourth quality has a dual nature and combines the earthly and heavenly manifestations of the Spirit, while the three higher qualities define the higher spiritual triad, which, presumably, corresponds to the triune higher values that require further research. The analysis of Böhme’s works also showed that the lower qualities are reflected in the higher ones, being similar to them and at the same time opposite. Such a system can serve as a starting point for further studies of the structure of human wholeness and health, integrating the empirical experience of mystics and alchemists into the modern scientific context.

Constructing, Revealing and Concealing Identity through Oaths in the Late Ancient Eastern Mediterranean

Abstract In this article, I will examine the functions of oaths in narratives of encounter, confrontation and polemic between religious communities in late antiquity, especially Jews and Christians. Through an analysis of these narratives, I hope to show that oaths had several functions: specific oath formulae were strongly associated with specific religious identities, and as such could be used to highlight distance between religious groups. However, oaths could be used to demonstrate the permeability of religious boundaries, or even be deployed cunningly to conceal one’s identity or subvert expectations of its performance.

The Challenges of teaching the Subject “Archaeology” in Regional Universities, using the Example of Vanadzor State University

Key words: archeology, archeology of Armenia, teaching, museum practice, excavations, methods of teaching archeology, archeology textbook In regional universities of the Republic of Armenia, the course “Archaeology” is part of the general academic program within the specialization of “History.” The number of hours allocated for this subject may vary depending on the educational institutions. At Vanadzor State University, “Archaeology” is taught for a total of 58 academic hours. We have developed educational materials, including lectures and textbooks, to prepare a curriculum that covers the fundamentals of archaeology and the archaeological periods of Armenia, ranging from early historical periods to the late Middle Ages. Various teaching methods are employed during the learning process, including lectures, seminars, discussions, debates, and practical exercises. Classroom sessions utilize methods such as problem-based lectures, dialogical lectures, discussion-based lectures, seminar discussions, and others, depending on the specific topic and methodology. One of the challenges in teaching “Archaeology” is the absence of a suitable textbook that fully aligns with the curriculum. To address this issue, we propose the development of an interdisciplinary textbook that encompasses the basics of archaeology, geology, and geography. This textbook should cover archaeology from the Stone Age to the Middle Ages, based on contemporary technologies and scientific advancements, while complying with the educational standards of universities. To enhance the effective teaching of “Archaeology” and the preparation of future archaeologists, it is suggested to increase the number of credit hours allocated for this subject in universities and to offer it over two semesters in the first year. This approach will establish a comprehensive link between “Armenian History” and historical periods of the Ancient East.

Population genetic admixture and evolutionary history in the Shandong Peninsula inferred from integrative modern and ancient genomic resources

BackgroundAncient northern East Asians (ANEA) from the Yellow River region, who pioneered millet cultivation, play a crucial role in understanding the origins of ethnolinguistically diverse populations in modern China and the entire landscape of deep genetic structure and variation discovery in modern East Asians. However, the direct links between ANEA and geographically proximate modern populations, as well as the biological adaptive processes involved, remain poorly understood.ResultsHere, we generated genome-wide SNP data for 264 individuals from geographically different Han populations in Shandong. An integrated genomic resource encompassing both modern and ancient East Asians was compiled to examine fine-scale population admixture scenarios and adaptive traits. The reconstruction of demographic history and hierarchical clustering patterns revealed that individuals from the Shandong Peninsula share a close genetic affinity with ANEA, indicating long-term genetic continuity and mobility in the lower Yellow River basin since the early Neolithic period. Biological adaptive signatures, including those related to immune and metabolic pathways, were identified through analyses of haplotype homozygosity and allele frequency spectra. These signatures are linked to complex traits such as height and body mass index, which may be associated with adaptations to cold environments, dietary practices, and pathogen exposure. Additionally, allele frequency trajectories over time and a haplotype network of two highly differentiated genes, ABCC11 and SLC10A1, were delineated. These genes, which are associated with axillary odor and bilirubin metabolism, respectively, illustrate how local adaptations can influence the diversification of traits in East Asians.ConclusionsOur findings provide a comprehensive genomic dataset that elucidates the fine-scale genetic history and evolutionary trajectory of natural selection signals and disease susceptibility in Han Chinese populations. This study serves as a paradigm for integrating spatiotemporally diverse ancient genomes in the era of population genomic medicine.

Orientaliści i orientalistyka w międzywojennym Wilnie (1920–1939)

In interwar Poland, academic Oriental studies developed in three distinct centres, although the Orientalist community remained decentralized. In Vilnius, several scholars in this field were active and conducted both research and instruction of Oriental languages. Among them were Poles, Jews, Karaites and Tatars. Professionally, they were also diverse, including linguists, biblical scholars, Palestinologists, museologists, lecturers, and rabbis. Their academic pursuits encompassed religious studies, Semitic studies (with a focus on Hebrew), Ancient Eastern philology, Sanskrit, Ottoman Turkish studies, Turkish dialectology, Karaim studies, and ethnographic studies of the Polish Orient. In terms of education, they were involved in both school and university instruction, teaching Hebrew, Arabic, Turkish, and Karaim. Noteworthy figures among these scholars in Vilnius included: Antoni Cichoński, Zofia Dubińska, Aleksander Dubiński, Dawid Neiger, Paweł Nowicki, Jan Otrębski, Seraja Szapszał, Jakub Szynkiewicz, Franciszek Tyczkowski, Bolesław Wilanowski, Ali Ismaił Woronowicz, Ananiasz Zajączkowski, and Włodzimierz Zajączkowski, along with Władysław Zimnicki. However, the research on Jewish, Tatar (Quranic) and Karaim education in Vilnius remains scant. Beyond scholarly and pedagogical pursuits, Orientalist activities in Vilnius extended to numerous institutions, including the Jewish Library, the Karaim and Tatar Museum, and various associations (including the Polish Oriental Society). Moreover, the city served as a hub for many periodicals, such as “Myśl Karaimska,” “Rocznik Tatarski,” “Życie Tatarskie,” as well as many Jewish magazines. Vilnius also hosted two Congresses of Polish Orientalists (in 1932 and 1937).

Agropastoral and dietary practices of the northern Levant facing Late Holocene climate and environmental change: Isotopic analysis of plants, animals and humans from Bronze to Iron Age Tell Tweini.

One of the largest isotopic datasets of the ancient Eastern Mediterranean region is evaluated, based on plants (n = 410), animals (n = 210) and humans (n = 16) from Tell Tweini (Syria). Diachronic analysis of plant and faunal specimens from four main periods of occupation: Early Bronze Age (2600-2000 BC), Middle Bronze Age (2000-1600 BC), Late Bronze Age (1600-1200 BC) and Iron Age (1200-333 BC) were investigated. Mean Δ13C results from seven plant species reveal emmer and free threshing wheat, olives, bitter vetch, rye grass and barley were adequately or well-watered during all periods of occupation. The grape Δ13C results suggest excellent growing conditions and particular care for its cultivation. The δ15N results indicate that especially the emmer and free threshing wheats received some manure inputs throughout the occupation sequence, while these were likely further increased during the Iron Age, encompassing also the olive groves and grape vineyards. Generally, domestic animals (cattle, sheep, goats) had C3 terrestrial diets and were kept together in similar environments. However, some animals consumed significant amounts of marine or C4 plants, possibly from disturbed habitats due to land use pressure or salt tolerant grasses and shrubs from wetland environments, which were recorded in the direct vicinity of the site. Middle Bronze Age humans consumed a C3 terrestrial diet with no measurable input from C4, freshwater or marine protein sources. Interestingly, the human diet was relatively low in animal protein and appears comparable to what is considered today a typical Mediterranean diet consisting of bread (wheat/barley), olives, grapes, pulses, dairy products and small amounts of meat. The combined isotopic analysis of plants, animals and humans from Tell Tweini represents unbroken links in the food chain which create unparalleled opportunities to enhance our current understanding of environmental conditions, climate change and lifeways in past populations from the Eastern Mediterranean.

An Ecofeminist and Taoist Reading of Louise Glück’s A Village Life

Born and bred in the Western lands in the context of ecological crisis and feminist movement in the 1970s, ecofeminism views men’s rule over women and human’s rule over nature as two aspects of the same issue, and believes that there is an inherent connection between them. By criticizing the oppressive status of women and nature, and eliminating the dualism rooted in western patriarchy, ecofeminism aims to promote equality and harmony among all things. Taoism, an ancient Eastern philosophy with a history of thousands of years, also places great emphasis on harmony among individuals, nature, society, and the universe. Its principles of “the unity of man and nature”, and balance between “Yin” and “Yang” provide philosophical support for ecofeminism which rejects dualisms and encourages wholeness and harmony. As society and economy develop rapidly, humanity faces a series of crisis, and this paper just intends to combine ecofeminism with Taoism to make an analysis on Louise Glück’s poem collection of A Village Life to explore her ecofeminist consciousness and how she advocates the establishment of a diverse but harmonious world without hierarchical differences in her poems.

Some historical and legal aspects of bringing to legal responsibility for issuing and executing criminal orders and orders

From the analysis of historical and legal sources, it can be seen that the legal responsibility for issuing and executing criminal orders and orders went through certain stages of formation, which are directly related to the processes of emergence and development depending on the historical type of the state and its legal instruments. It is noted that the first states that at the legislative level established legal responsibility, that is, punishment, including for giving and executing criminal orders and orders, were the states of the Ancient East, in particular, Ancient Egypt, Ancient Babylon and Ancient India, where at the legislative level legal responsibility was introduced not only for ordinary people, but also for representatives of the authorities for criminal actions against the state that encroached on the established state order. In most cases, the punishment for such acts was the death penalty. It is argued that the idea of legal responsibility for issuing and executing criminal orders and orders dates back to biblical times, where it is inextricably linked to the doctrine of the origin and separation of powers. Therefore, in view of the significant influence of Christianity on the formation of the Western legal tradition, in particular the texts of the Bible, which in fact became the civilization foundation on which the legal norms designed to regulate social relations between people and government institutions were based and will continue to be based, including the scope revealed which is assigned to man for his dominion and the limits where such dominion ends. And in the event that not only representatives of the authorities, but also anyone violates the commandments established by the Creator, including not only by issuing, but also by executing orders or orders, then such actions are subject to condemnation, and the person himself is subject to punishment.

TEACHER AND SOCIETY: HISTORY AND MODERNITY

The teaching profession is one of the oldest. In the paper, we have made a brief review of whether the teaching profession was honorable in society in different periods of human development, whether it was respected in society, what the teacher’s position was and what it is now.It has been found that in the countries of the Ancient East, the authority of the teacher was undeniable for children and adults. The means of existence of the teachers was the salary and gifts for the education of the children from the parents. In India, according to religious traditions, a hierarchy of teachers was formed that performed various teaching and educational functions, and the attitude of society towards them was unequal. In Ancient Greece, in connection with the simplification of the learning process, the authority of the teacher in society decreased. The treatment of teachers of different levels of education is unequal, the salary is low, especially for primary private school teachers. During the Middle Ages, the teachers were mainly representatives of the church.It has been shown that with the development of society, education, and pedagogy, all prominent philosophers and pedagogues highly valued the importance of the teacher in society, emphasized the need for his material support. In the monuments of pedagogical thought of the Ukrainian Renaissance era, the role of the teacher in society is highly valued and requirements for teachers were set forth.The position of the teacher gradually changed in the developed world with the creation of mass schools in the nineteenth century and their inclusion in the state system. The teacher becomes a civil servant. Women are also becoming teachers. However, the position of teachers in society, especially in rural areas, and the attitude towards them was unenviable, as Ukrainian writers have written about.In the twentieth century, the teaching profession became widespread around the world. Nevertheless, even today, attitudes towards teachers vary from country to country. It depends on the peculiarities of the historical development of countries, the level of the educational institution where the teacher works, the gender of the teacher, etc., and it is manifested, in particular, in the social status, working conditions and remuneration. Nowadays, in most countries of the world, a teacher is a civil servant. Traditionally, the teaching profession is more respected in the East, in Muslim countries. In many countries around the world, even in developed ones, primary school teachers receive lower salaries.

Понятийно-терминологический аспект практики откровения помыслов в традиции египетского и палестинского монашества IV — VII вв.

The article analyzes the original terminology of the patristic writings of Egyptian and Palestinian monasticism of the 4th - 7th centuries, which is found when mentioning the practice of revelation of thoughts as an important pastoral-ascetic activity and a form of spiritual leadership in the monastic tradition of this period. The author identifies the main terms related to this area, analyzes the context of their use and various semantic shades that reflect the corresponding forms, conditions and characteristics of this activity. Modern patrolologists strictly distinguish the practice of revealing thoughts from confession, which in ancient times was carried out in all forms of monastic life: hermitage, semi-hermitage, community and laura. At the same time, the most ancient sources do not always reflect this difference, their external forms and ideological content. Another equally important question remains not entirely clear: how the great fathers of ancient Eastern monasticism understood this saving remedy, whether for them there was a division between confession and revelation of thoughts as between two different actions of repentance, and if so, what appeared for them clear criteria for such division. The sources for the study were the most famous and significant works of monastic writing in the tradition of Egypt and Palestine in the 4th - 7th centuries, as the period of formation, development and greatest flowering of monasticism, and at the same time its ascetic and pastoral theology. Some manuscripts of individual sources were also used as sources, including the most ancient ones, reflecting the understanding of the practice being studied in the minds of scribes belonging to various manuscript traditions - Greek, Latin and Coptic. The subject of study are terms denoting revelation (of hidden thoughts, sinful falls committed in secret), revelation (of oneself, one’s emotional experiences, demonic temptations, etc.), confession (of sins, a passionate disposition of the soul and its destructive consequences), etc.

Эволюция роли библиотеки в контексте сохранения национальных языков

<p>The article is devoted to the analysis of the role of the library institution in the preservation, dissemination and development of national languages. The author attempted a retrospective, comparative, axiological analysis of changes in the image of the library in accordance with the cultural characteristics of different eras. The main attention was aimed at identifying the linguistic and cultural features of library texts. It has been revealed and substantiated that in the ancient East the library served as a sacralized archive of texts mainly in the ancient Sumerian and Assyrian languages. Linguistic texts of ancient Eastern libraries connected sacred meanings and everyday life. In antiquity, lively dialogue and the dialectical development of thought came to the fore, so the library became a place for debate. The libraries of Alexandria, Pergamon, and private collections contained scrolls in different languages, but many of them were professionally translated into Greek. In medieval culture, the library became a library of one book, the Bible, which was copied in Greek and Latin. In the late Middle Ages, books in vernacular languages appeared in libraries, which contributed to the development of the latter. In modern times, the library becomes a way of education and mass dissemination of national literary languages. In the information age, the library acquires the global features of a «universal library»; the boundaries of the virtual and real space of the library are erased. A modern library acquires many functions: it provides information to users, is a place for holding various educational events, and educational games. In modern Russia, the library institution plays a huge role in preserving the languages of the small peoples of our country. Thus, libraries in all eras play an important role in the formation, preservation, dissemination and development of national languages.</p>

Ancient Travellers, Intercultural Contact, and the Fear of Gods

Although the fear of Yhwh has been presented as an intrinsic feature of the ancient Israelite religion, the fear of God(s) is not limited to the people of Israel in the Hebrew Bible, and similar ideas of fearing deities occur in various texts produced by neighbouring cultures in the ancient eastern Mediterranean. This article investigates the prosocial role of this virtue in situations of human mobility and intercultural contact in the light of the Hebrew Bible and the Odyssey. First, I analyse those Hebrew Bible texts in which the fear of God(s) characterizes or is presented as being intelligible to non-Israelite people in situations involving movement and cultural encounter (Gen 20:11; 42:18; Exod 1:17, 21; Deut 25:18; Jon 1:9). Second, I explore the fear motif in other texts from the ancient eastern Mediterranean region and argue that biblical scholars have overlooked illuminating intertexts found in ancient Greek literature. I especially highlight the interpretative importance of the Odyssey, which frequently stresses the prosocial role of the virtue of fearing deities in the context of travel and contact with outsiders. In so doing, the Odyssey helps us see how the Hebrew Bible texts portraying the fear of God(s) as a universalistic virtue are rooted in and belong to a broader ancient Mediterranean milieu.