Ancient Egyptian Mummies Research Articles

Multispectral investigation of natural resins.

Resins have been used as remedies since ancient times and various embalming resins have been identified in recent years. In Europe, Mumia vera aegyptiaca, a resinous substance from ancient Egyptian mummies, was even sold in pharmacies as a tonic until the early 20th century. It is difficult to examine the composition of these archeological samples in detail as the well-established analytical techniques, that is, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry or liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry, are destructive and therefore do not allow the analysis of valuable archeological samples. Hence, there is an urgent need for alternative, nondestructive methods for the identification of resin residues. This study aims to explore and compare the use of five spectroscopic methods as an alternative to established analytical procedures. For that, 15 resin samples of known origin and three samples from an Egyptian market were studied. While laser induced-breakdown spectroscopy and terahertz time-domain spectroscopy provide only limited information for resin classification, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy can be used to classify the resin samples more accurately. Furthermore, photoluminescence/photoluminescence excitation spectroscopy shows a promising potential in combination with its general advantages, such as cost-efficiency, nondestructive nature, and fast data acquisition.

Seeing is believing – The application of Three-Dimensional modelling technologies to reconstruct the final hours in the life of an ancient Egyptian Crocodile

The application of non-invasive radiography (X-ray and CT) to an ancient Egyptian crocodile mummy demonstrated a high level of corporeal preservation achieved through artificial embalming. Analysis revealed numerous anomalies within the abdomen of the crocodile which merited further investigation using digital three-dimensional modelling technologies. Improving the clarity of the CT scan data enabled the authors to identify the anomalies which included a metal fish hook and a small fish. Segmentation of the CT scan data enabled the virtual extraction of the hook from within the confines of the mummy and its replication, firstly in plastic and then in its original material, bronze.Through the scientific analysis of the mummy, the authors reconstruct the biological biography and life history attributes of the animal, and consider the human-animal relationships and religious beliefs behind its post-mortem preservation. The study explores the application of the 3D technologies applied to archaeological materials and the novel implementation of experimental techniques to reproduce the anomaly. The investigation provided the ability to enhance the study, interpretation and display of the mummy; a matter of particular relevance in the case of mummified remains where anomalies are not directly visible. The authors consider the improved accessibility to cultural artefacts made possible through the application of enhanced visualisation techniques in the heritage sector.

Preservation of the heart in ancient Egyptian mummies: A computed tomography investigation with focus on the myocardium.

The ancient Egyptians considered the heart to be the most important organ. The belief that the heart remained in the body is widespread in the archeological and paleopathological literature. The purpose of this study was to perform an overview of the preserved intrathoracic structures and thoracic and abdominal cavity filling, and to determine the prevalence and computed tomography (CT) characteristics of the myocardium in the preserved hearts of ancient Egyptian mummies. Whole-body CT examinations of 45 ancient Egyptian mummies (23 mummies from the Ägyptisches Museum und Papyrussammlung, Berlin, Germany, and 22 mummies from the Museo Egizio, Turin, Italy) were systematically assessed for preserved intrathoracic soft tissues including various anatomical components of the heart (pericardium, interventricular septum, four chambers, myocardium, valves). Additionally, evidence of evisceration and cavity filling was documented. In cases with identifiable myocardium, quantitative (measurements of thickness and density) and qualitative (description of the structure) assessment of the myocardial tissue was carried out. Heart structure was identified in 28 mummies (62%). In 33 mummies, CT findings demonstrated evisceration, with subsequent cavity filling in all but one case. Preserved myocardium was identified in nine mummies (five male, four female) as a mostly homogeneous, shrunken structure. The posterior wall of the myocardium had a mean maximum thickness of 3.6 mm (range 1.4-6.6 mm) and a mean minimum thickness of 1.0 mm (range 0.5-1.7 mm). The mean Hounsfield units (HU) of the myocardium at the posterior wall was 61 (range, 185-305). There was a strong correlation between the HU of the posterior wall of the myocardium and the mean HU of the muscles at the dorsal humerus (R = 0.77; p = 0.02). In two cases, there were postmortem changes in the myocardium, most probably due to insect infestation. To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the myocardium systematically on CT scans of ancient Egyptian mummies. Strong correlations between the densities of the myocardium and skeletal muscle indicated similar postmortem changes of the respective musculature during the mummification process within individual mummies. The distinct postmortem shrinking of the myocardium and the collapse of the left ventriclular cavity in several cases did not allow for paleopathological diagnoses such as myocardial scarring.

Postmortem changes in ancient Egyptian child mummies: Possible pitfalls on CT images

ObjectiveTo identify and interpret computed tomography (CT) findings of postmortem changes in ancient Egyptian child mummies. MaterialsWhole-body CT examinations of 21 ancient Egyptian child mummies from German (n = 18), Italian (n = 1), and Swiss museums (n = 2). MethodsConspicuous CT findings from prior evaluations with various research questions that were assessed as postmortem changes were classified, and special cases were illustrated and discussed. ResultsPostmortem changes were classified into several categories. From these, individuals with evidence of invasion of resin/oil/tar into bone, dried fluid-levels within bone most likely due to natron, probable interaction of natron with soft tissues and bone, as well as insect infestation were demonstrated. ConclusionsOne challenge of paleoradiology is to differentiate between intravital and postmortem changes, which can be multifarious. These changes can be obvious, but also subtle, and can mimic diseases. SignificanceThe provided classification of postmortem changes, as well as the demonstrated cases, may serve as models for further paleoradiological investigations. The dried intraosseous fluid levels in two mummies, most likely due to natron, suggests that these children were immersed in a liquid natron bath, in contrast to the current scientific view that natron for mummification was routinely applied in the solid form. LimitationsCT was used as the only examination method, as sampling of the mummies was not possible. Suggestions for further researchThe awareness that postmortem changes on CT images of ancient Egyptian mummies might mimic pathology should be raised to reduce or avoid incorrect interpretation.

New Inhibitory Effect by Green Synthesized Chalcone Derivatives on the Fungal Deterioration of Archaeological Egyptian Mummy, Egypt

The biodeterioration of archaeological mummies is a severe issue, where fungi are the most significant agents deteriorating them. The inhibitory effect of [1,2,4]triazolo[3,4-a]isoquinoline chalcone derivatives on the growth of thirteen deteriorated fungal species (Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, A. terreus, Athelia bombacina, Aureobasidium iranianum, Byssochlamys spectabilis, Cladosporium cladosporioides, C. ramotenellum, Penicillium crustosum, P. polonicum, Talaromyces atroroseus, T. minioluteus, and T. purpureogenus), which isolated and identified from ancient Egyptian mummy cartonnage located in El-Lahun regions, Fayoum government, Egypt were investigated. Antifungal activity and minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the tested four chalcone derivatives with different concentrations (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 mg/ml) were measured. The most efficient chalcone derivatives are chalcone derivative number 4 which causes the maximum significant inhibition in the growth of the thirteen isolated fungal species with MIC ranging from 1 to 3 mg/ml followed by chalcone derivatives number 6 with MIC ranging from 2 to 5 mg/ml. The use of chalcone derivative number 4 for the preservation of cultural assets should be considered for future applications.

Anemias in ancient Egyptian child mummies: Computed tomography investigations in European museums

AbstractThe aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of anemias in ancient Egyptian child mummies. Whole‐body computed tomography (CT) examinations of 21 ancient Egyptian child mummies from European museums were evaluated for estimation of sex and age at death. CT examinations were systematically assessed for skeletal effects of anemias using a clinical radiological approach as well as quantitative measurements of the thickness of the cranial vault and diploe. Additionally, the technical feasibility to assess porotic hyperostosis on the available CT data was examined. Twelve children were assessed as male and seven as female, and in two, the sex was indeterminate. The estimated age at death ranged from about 1 year to 12–14 years. One case showed radiological signs of thalassemia (β‐thalassemia major) at the cranial vault and postcranial skeleton. Additionally, this case had a macroglossia that probably indicated Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome. Quantitative measurements confirmed a high variability of cranial vault thickness and diploe thickness. Compared with clinical reference values, seven out of the 21 (33%) child mummies had a pathological enlargement of the frontal cranial vault that represents a typical finding of chronic hemolytic anemia and iron deficiency anemia. Assessment of porotic hyperostosis was not feasible on the available CT examinations as the image quality was not sufficient for this examination. In conclusion, pathological enlargement of the frontal cranial vault as an indicator for chronic hemolytic anemia and iron deficiency anemia had a high prevalence, especially in the younger children. The mummy with radiological signs of thalassemia seems to be the first case with radiological evidence of skeletal effects of this anemia to the cranial vault and postcranial skeleton from ancient Egypt.

Scanning and three-dimensional-printing using computed tomography of the "Golden Boy" mummy.

Ancient Egyptian mummies represent an opportunity to learn more about the health, beliefs, and skills of humans in antiquity. A fully wrapped mummy, from a Late Ptolemaic cemetery (c.332-30 BC) in Edfu, Egypt, has been stored, unexamined, at the Cairo Egyptian Museum since 1916. We hypothesized that scanning and 3D-printing the mummy using Computed Tomography (CT) could help in documenting and promoting its public display. CT enabled non-invasive digital unwrapping and revealed a well-preserved mummy. Biological sex could be determined from the presence of male genitalia; epiphyseal fusion and tooth eruption indicated an approximate age at death of 14-15 years. The deceased had healthy teeth and bones without evidence of poor nutrition or disease. CT detected a high-quality mummification process that included brain removal through an iatrogenic defect of the cribriform plate and viscera removal via a left lower-abdominal incision. The heart remained in the chest as a spiritual symbol. Resin was poured into the emptied cranial and torso cavities, and linen packs were placed inside the torso. The Mummy's external ornamentation includes a gilded head mask, a pectoral cartonnage, and a pair of sandals. CT identified 49 amulets inside the mummy and between the wrappings, arranged in three columns. The amulets have 21 different shapes, including Udjat, scarabs, Ajet, Djed-pillar, Tyt, Placenta, Double-Plume, and Right-angle. CT densities indicated that 30 (61%) amulets were metal (likely gold), and the other amulets were made of faience, stones, or fired clay. The embalmers placed amulets to protect and provide vitality for the body for the afterlife. A gold tongue amulet was placed inside the mouth to ensure the deceased could speak in the afterlife. A Two-finger amulet was placed beside the penis to protect the embalming incision. 3D-printing enabled the tactile and visual study of a heart scarab found inside the thoracic cavity. Findings from this study suggest that ancient Egyptians valued their children and provided them with ritual treatment. State-of-the-art techniques such as CT and 3D printing provided valuable insights and supported the museum display of the mummy, nicknamed "The Golden Boy."

Novel eco-friendly [1,2,4]triazolo[3,4-a]isoquinoline chalcone derivatives efficiency against fungal deterioration of ancient Egyptian mummy cartonnage, Egypt

Fungal deterioration is one of the major factors that significantly contribute to mummy cartonnage damage. Isolation and molecular identification of thirteen fungal species contributing to the deterioration of ancient Egyptian mummy cartonnage located in El-Lahun regions, Fayoum government, Egypt was performed. The most dominant deteriorated fungal species are Aspergillus flavus (25.70%), Aspergillus terreus (16.76%), followed by A. niger (13.97%). A newly synthesized series of tetrahydro-[1,2,4]triazolo[3,4-a]isoquinoline chalcone derivatives were synthesized and evaluated for their antifungal activities in vitro against the isolated deteriorated fungal species (Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, A. terreus, Athelia bombacina, Aureobasidium iranianum, Byssochlamys spectabilis, Cladosporium cladosporioides, C. ramotenellum, Penicillium crustosum, P. polonicum, Talaromyces atroroseus, T. minioluteus and T. purpureogenus). The most efficient chalcone derivatives are new chalcone derivative numbers 9 with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ranging from 1 to 3 mg/mL followed by chalcone derivatives number 5 with MIC ranging from 1 to 4 mg/mL.

A Story of a Stork

The Náprstek Museum, Prague holds in its collection an ancient Egyptian mummy of Abdim’s stork. The mummy, along with other ancient Egyptian antiquities, was transferred to the National Museum in 1933 from the Esterházy chateau in Tomášikovo, Slovakia. Originally, it was believed to be the mummy of a human child; however, examination through initially destructive and later non-destructive methods identified the object as a mummy of a stork.

Identification of bird taxa species in ancient Egyptian mummies: Part 2, a qualitative evaluation of the utility of CT scanning and 3D printing

Ancient Egyptians believed that objects created in the image of a god, in either animal or hybrid form, from artificial or organic materials could act as a communication device, effectively enabling a dialogue between the devotee and the deity. The mummified remains of animals concealed within linen wrappings were popular votive offerings. These mummies are now investigated using non-destructive techniques such as three-dimensional Computed Tomography (CT). Using techniques developed in medicine it is possible to generate three-dimensional computer models of the bones within animal mummies from CT data. These models can be used to produce visualisations of the bones but can also be physically reproduced by 3D Printing. There are a number of parameters and decisions that can be made at both the scanning and 3D printing stages that can affect the quality of the final physical artefacts and how closely they resemble the real bones. This study aimed to explore the effects of different CT scanning Field of View, 3D printing processes and materials and qualitatively evaluate the extent to which the resulting 3D Printed replica bones accurately reproduced the identifiable features of real bones. Two different CT scanning sessions were conducted and 30 3D printed replica bones produced using three different processes, material extrusion, stereolithography and PolyJet modelling. Different materials were used to investigate the effects of colour and transparency. The replicas were provided to five experts in bird anatomy who were asked to evaluate the replicas and comment on their utility for species identification by the bone-in-hand method. The results showed that transparent materials were less useful than those with a uniform neutral colour. Replicas made with thinner layers were preferred due to their smoother surface. Overall, the PolyJet modelling replicas were ranked highest. The replicas made from higher resolution CT data (a smaller Field of View) produced superior replicas. This study provides a rigorous evaluation of the practice of producing 3D Printed replicas of animal anatomy from archaeological remains and has shown the utility of the practice for species identification.

"Mummies and their symbolic and expressive connotations as an entrance to enrich the figurative painting"

he atmosphere and nature of Egypt created in the soul of the Egyptian a feeling of immortality، and born in his conscience spirituality، and a belief about the afterlife، and about the continuity of life after death. Continuity، the ancient Egyptian artist was influenced by the Baath doctrine، and by the many religious beliefs that dominated his society، and therefore he kept assuming that “the picture he engraved on the walls of the temple or the cemetery is not just lines in which artistic harmony alone should be available، but that it can turn into a realistic reality” where They believed that the soul would return again، and that he would live another life in the grave similar to his earthly life. The beliefs of the other world in the ancient Egyptian required maintaining the body intact by embalming and making offerings so that the deceased could، through his soul (the ba) and the consort (the ka)، ascend with it and become acquainted with it. The ancient Egyptian would sometimes put a golden mask on the face of the mummy، especially if it belonged to a king، as was the case with King Tutankhamon، and this mask had the same features as the face of the deceased according to their beliefs، and this mask was a natural prelude. their mummies. Research Methodology and Type of Study: The research relied on the descriptive approach based on analysis in presenting and analyzing the theoretical framework related to the study and inductive research in presenting the various concepts، which depends primarily on an analytical study of selected examples of ancient Egyptian mummies and the faces of Fayoum.

Identification of avian remains contained within wrapped ancient Egyptian mummies: Part 1, A critical assessment of identification techniques

Ancient Egyptian bird mummies manufactured in huge numbers present a unique and intriguing body of material with great archaeological and zooarchaeological significance. Research into this ancient practice is gaining momentum; however, one area that lacks clarity, but that is vital for the accurate interpretation of mummies as objects of ritual significance, is our ability to proffer accurate identifications of remains contained within wrapped mummy bundles. This is particularly relevant in the case of bird mummies where morphological variation between species can be minimal.This paper presents the results of a multi-faceted research project combining non-invasive radiographic modalities, experimental techniques and 3D replication, designed to assess the accuracy of avian skeletal identification when physical access to the bones themselves is not possible.

A brief human history of ankylosing spondylitis: A scoping review of pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment.

Background: Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a chronic, progressive, inflammatory disease of the spine and SI joints. Diagnostic criteria and treatments have continued to evolve, necessitating a historical compendium of AS and its management. This paper aims to review the historical context underlying the discovery of AS, as well as the major diagnostic and therapeutic discoveries in the last two centuries.Methods: A scoping review of the literature pertaining to AS was performed via the Pubmed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. Future directions of AS treatments were assessed by querying the clinicaltrials.gov website.Results: The history of AS can be traced as far back as ancient Egypt (as evidenced by the discovery of its presence in ancient Egyptian mummies) to the late 20th century, when the inherited nature of AS was linked to a genetic factor, HLA-B27. Each discovery made throughout the years led to further investigations into the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment of AS. The criteria to differentiate AS from rheumatoid arthritis were first reported in 1893. Since then, diagnostic criteria for AS have undergone a series of changes before the present-day diagnostic criteria for AS were ultimately determined in 2009 by the Assessment of Spondyloarthritis International Society.Conclusion: As the pathophysiology of AS is better understood, healthcare providers are able to diagnose and treat the condition more effectively. In particular, earlier diagnosis and multiple treatment options have facilitated efficient and more effective treatment.

Insight into the structure of black coatings of ancient Egyptian mummies by advanced electron magnetic resonance of vanadyl complexes.

Ancient Egyptian mummies from the Late Period to the Greco-Roman Period were covered by a black coating consisting of complex and heterogeneous mixtures of conifer resins, wax, fat and oil with variable amounts of bitumen. Natural bitumen always contains traces of vanadyl porphyrin complexes that we used here as internal probes to explore the nanoscale environment of V ions in these black coatings by electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) and hyperfine sub-level correlation spectroscopy (HYSCORE). Four types of vanadyl porphyrin complexes were identified from the analysis of N hyperfine interactions. Three types (referred to as VO-P1, VO-P2 and VO-P3) are present in natural bitumen from the Dead Sea, among which VO-P1 and VO-P2 are also present in black coatings of mummies. The absence of VO-P3 in mummies, which is replaced by another complex, VO-P4, may be due to its transformation during preparation of the black matter for embalming. Analysis of H hyperfine interaction shows that bitumen and other natural substances are intimately mixed in these black coatings, with aggregate sizes of bitumen increasing with the bitumen content but not exceeding a few nanometres.

Recovery lines in ancient Egyptian child mummies: Computed tomography investigations in European museums

AbstractThe aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence and anatomical distribution of recovery lines (growth arrest lines) in ancient Egyptian child mummies. Whole‐body computed tomography (CT) examinations of 21 ancient Egyptian child mummies from European museums were evaluated for estimation of age at death and sex of the children. CT examinations were systematically assessed for recovery lines by inspection for metaphyseal lines, diaphyseal transverse lines, and bone‐within‐bone appearance at several sites of the skeleton. The estimated age at death of the children ranged from about 1 year to the age of 12–14 years. Twelve children were assessed as male, seven as female, and in two, the sex was indeterminate. Recovery lines were found in 18 out of the 21 (86%) child mummies. Metaphyseal lines were present in 12 mummies (57%), diaphyseal transverse lines in 12 mummies (57%), and bone‐within‐bone appearance in 11 mummies (52%). One case showed particularly dense metaphaseal bands typical of lead lines in lead poisoning. In conclusion, systematic assessment of recovery lines on CT images of ancient Egyptian child mummies showed a high prevalence of these lines. Many children had a combination of different lines, indicating more than one episode of growth disturbance. The spectrum of recovery lines included the better known metaphyseal and diaphyseal transverse lines as well as the less known bone‐within‐bone appearance that share the same pathomechanism. The mummy with lead lines seems to be the first case of radiological evidence of lead poisoning from ancient Egypt.

Findings in ancient Egyptian mummies from tomb KV64, Valley of the Kings, Luxor, with evidence of a rheumatic disease

Objective In 2011, a spectacular find was made in the Valley of the Kings, Egypt – a well-known archaeological site, where pharaohs were buried during the New Kingdom (ca. 1500–1100 BCE). A team from the University of Basel’s Kings’ Valley Project discovered a tomb (KV64) containing two mummies that were buried in different time episodes (unidentified elite burial, 18th dynasty, and Nehemesbastet, 22nd dynasty). Method Anthropological investigations of the mummies were performed using portable X-ray and photographic documentation. Results and conclusion The first burial was an adult individual with bilateral pathological changes at the temporomandibular joints (TMJs), most likely of inflammatory origin, possibly psoriatic arthritis. Investigations of the second burial revealed an intact body of a younger female individual.

Fish Mummies in the Collections of the Náprstek Museum – Preliminary Report

The National Museum – Náprstek Museum of Asian, African and American Cultures, Prague, keeps within its collection four ancient Egyptian fish mummies. The specimens were recently examined using computed tomography as a part of the Atlas of Egyptian Mummies Project in the Czech Collections. Preliminary results of the examination using the most advanced, non-destructive radiological methods indicated that the original taxonomical determination of the mummified fish, examined previously by the team led by Eugen Strouhal in the 1970s, as Polypterus sp. (and Gymnarchus niloticus) was not confirmed. Recently, the specimens were classified as belonging to the Siluriformes order.

Radiological evidence of purulent infections in ancient Egyptian child mummies

ObjectiveTo identify computed tomography (CT) findings of purulent infections in ancient Egyptian child mummies. MaterialsWhole-body CT examination of 21 ancient Egyptian child mummies from German (n = 18), Italian (n = 1), and Swiss museums (n = 2). MethodsCT examinations were evaluated for estimation of age at death and sex of the children. CT examinations were systematically assessed for any CT findings of purulent infection. ResultsThe estimated age at death of the children ranged from about one year to the age of 12–14 years (mean 4.8 years). Twelve children were assessed as male, seven as female and in two sex was indeterminate. Three out of 21 child mummies (14.3%) had radiological evidence of purulent infections. In one mummy, a bandage-like structure at the right lower leg was detected that most likely represented a dressing of a skin lesion. ConclusionsThis study appears to be the first to describe radiologically visualized structures consistent with dried pus in ancient Egyptian mummies. This study also appears to be the first to physically demonstrate an original ancient Egyptian dressing. SignificanceThese cases may serve as models for further paleopathological investigation. The evidence of an original dressing contributes to our knowledge of ancient Egyptian medicine. LimitationsCT was used as the only examination method as sampling of the wrapped mummies was not possible. Suggestions for further researchRadiological-pathological correlation in mummies in which physical sampling is available may reveal further insights into purulent infections in ancient Egypt.

A radiological reassessment of the ‘pregnant mummy’: A comment to Ejsmond et al., 2021

Ejsmond et al. described a fetus inside the pelvic cavity of an ancient Egyptian mummy from the first century BC based on a Computed Tomography (CT) study. The objective of this reply is to open a discussion about this interesting finding with the scientific community. The article based the diagnosis on the external appearance of a pelvic mass that resembled a rolled up fetus but without being able to detect any anatomical configuration or bones. We welcome the authors effort to do advanced radiological mummy studies; however, we are unconvinced by their interpretation. We believe that it is not possible to identify, with any certainty, the pelvic object in question as a fetus. The article explained lack of identification of fetal bones that they must have shrunk. In our experience, ancient Egyptian un-mummified fetal skeletons and mummies kept their anatomical details. It is very unlikely that the dense semi-rounded compact structure could be ‘a fetal head’ as assumed in the article because the skull bones during fetal life are un-fused and would have collapsed and disarticulated after death. We encourage Ejsmond et al. to revise or re-do the CT scan of the mummy with the proper protocol supervised by a paleo-radiologist, to revise/clarify the diagnosis of the ‘pregnant mummy’ and include possible differential diagnosis such as visceral packs/condensed embalming materials, or a calcified pelvic tumor.

Automated segmentation of microtomography imaging of Egyptian mummies.

Propagation Phase Contrast Synchrotron Microtomography (PPC-SRμCT) is the gold standard for non-invasive and non-destructive access to internal structures of archaeological remains. In this analysis, the virtual specimen needs to be segmented to separate different parts or materials, a process that normally requires considerable human effort. In the Automated SEgmentation of Microtomography Imaging (ASEMI) project, we developed a tool to automatically segment these volumetric images, using manually segmented samples to tune and train a machine learning model. For a set of four specimens of ancient Egyptian animal mummies we achieve an overall accuracy of 94–98% when compared with manually segmented slices, approaching the results of off-the-shelf commercial software using deep learning (97–99%) at much lower complexity. A qualitative analysis of the segmented output shows that our results are close in terms of usability to those from deep learning, justifying the use of these techniques.