Ancient Chinese Wisdom Research Articles

Bridging ancient wisdom and modern management: Enhancing I Ching learning with ChatGPT

This study aims to investigate the integration of artificial intelligence, specifically ChatGPT, into the learning process of the I Ching, and its impact on students' understanding and application of this ancient Chinese wisdom in modern management practices. The research adopts a quantitative approach, utilizing surveys to collect data from students. ChatGPT, an artificial intelligence language model, is employed as a learning tool to assist students in applying the principles of the I Ching to solve business problems. The surveys evaluate students' perceptions of ChatGPT's usefulness, ease of use, and its effectiveness in practical applications of the I Ching. Additionally, the study examines ChatGPT's responses to determine its knowledge of the I Ching. The findings affirm that ChatGPT possesses a fundamental understanding of the I Ching and can effectively apply it to solve problems presented in textbook cases. Students perceive ChatGPT as user-friendly and highly beneficial in learning how to apply the I Ching in practical scenarios. The integration of ChatGPT as a learning tool has not only enhanced accessibility to the I Ching but also elicited increased interest and engagement among students. This integration serves as a valuable bridge between ancient Chinese wisdom and modern management approaches. By harnessing the power of artificial intelligence, students can dynamically and interactively explore the depths of the I Ching, thereby enhancing their comprehension and application of its principles. Consequently, this integration not only facilitates the learning of the I Ching but also fosters greater interest and engagement among students in business school.

How to Obtain Hexagrams with Yijing Divination – An Application of Ancient Chinese Wisdom Analysis

This article provides an analysis of a fundamental issue in Yijing studies （易学), that is, how to obtain a gua (卦, or hexagram) from Yijing divination. It modifies existing interpretations of the Dayan Divination method (大衍筮法) and proposes a new algorithm, thereby discovers the probability distribution of all gua in Yijing (易卦).The sixty-four hexagrams (重卦, 或六爻卦) of Yijing have appeared during the Shang Dynasty (ca BCE 1600-1046) and became prevalent during the Zhou Dynasty (ca BCE 1045-256), forming the foundation of Yijing. The images of gua (卦象, 64 hexagrams with six lines (爻) each and 8 trigrams (单卦) with three lines) constitute a systematic whole. Any interpretation of Yijing needs to be based on the full set of gua images. Yijing is well known as the foremost origin of all the Chinese classics, and the “divine intent” revealed by the Yijing gua is the source from which various concepts as well as their interpretations of Chinese civilization are drawn. As Yijing being a divination book, the “divine revelation” embodied in the gua serves as the authentic source in Chinese tradition to seek guidance for all kinds of risk decision-making. Regardless of applications of wide variety, the wisdom of Fuxi (伏羲, ca BCE 4600-?), the archaic sage of Chinese civilization and the root source of Yijing, has been congealed and conveyed through Yijing gua.How to acquire a gua related to “my issue,” viz., how to get know the divine intent from Heaven guiding the matters of my concern is the key question to all Yijing users. The answer involves three stages: requesting in earnest; throwing divination to obtain the gua; interpreting the underlying meaning of gua. Of them, the legitimacy of the request depends on sincerity of the prayer; the interpretation of mystic revelation of the acquired gua benefits from collective experience and intelligence. The divination throw, the stage in the middle, however, relies on the Dayan Divination method, which is the only authentic way to obtain a gua in Yijing.The Dayan Divination method is essentially a random number generator. The four numbers entailed from the divination process represent the four primary symbols (四象): 6 (六) represents the Great Yin (⚏, 老阴), 7 (七) represents the Lesser Yang (⚎, 少阳), 8 (八) represents the Lesser Yin (⚍, 少阴), and 9 (九) represents the Great Yang (⚌, 老阳). The probabilities to obtain the random number 6, 7, 8, 9 are 1/16, 5/16, 7/16, and 3/16, respectively. (This probability distribution is way different from the simplified method used in the public commoners known as the “coin flipping method.”)With the Dayan Divination, the probability distribution of the entire system of gua in Yijing can be inferred, which is of significant importance for examining and calculating the connections and evolutions among gua. (See Appendix II)In Appendix I, the author provides a thorough analysis of Shao Yong’s “doubling method” and its close association with Leibniz’s binary algorithm. With the new perspective created by the binary coding, he is therefore convinced that the Shao Yong-Leibniz sequence is indeed a substantial advancement in the overall ordering of gua in Yijing, and subsequently proposes an innovative approach enabling, extending and deepening Yijing studies.

Concrete Advices For Longevity From Wholistic Medication in The Light of Modern Molecular Chemistry–Physiology–Nutrition

We adopt the spirit of the traditional Chinese medication (including Chinese cuisine) to the effect that the human body is to be viewed as a whole as it is. By invoking a few universally established principles in biochemistry-physiology-nutrition, i.e., using modern medical principles as a touchstone, we revive the ancient Chinese wisdom of the Wu xin principle (five elements) and Five-storied pagoda principle and we deduce a plausible conclusion that the effect of fire is to be weakened by water: Xiangke of fire (oxygen) and water (antioxidant). Then we go on to show that affinity of water and soil, metal and tree explains the nutrition of the human body by vegetable, metal ions, and fruits. Five-storied pagoda principle tell that water is squeezed by soil and fire, which explains the affinity and conflict of these elements. Wind is to be interpreted to mean oil and cosmos to mean the mind.

An E-C Translation Study under the Theory of Eco-translatology: Children and Nature in The Secret Garden

Approaching the second decade of the 21 century, the theoretical translation field of China is gracing with a new theory that might open up a new paradigm for the discipline. Inspired by ancient Chinese wisdom on the harmonious relationships between man and environment, the theory of eco-translatology was published by Gengshen Hu. Eco-translatology is an interdisciplinary subject that involves the subject of translation and the ideas used in ecology. In most translated (English to Chinese) childrens literature, translators select different words under their translational environment and their own understanding of cross-cultural adaptation. Therefore, the ideal version of translation would achieve the harmonious relationships between linguistic, communicative, cross-cultural transition, and other translation-related factors, it would also achieve the harmonious relationships between authors original attempt, translators selection of words, and readers experience. This paper will make a specific analysis of the different E-C translated texts of the famous childrens literature The Secret Garden to explore translators different interpretations of authors unique ideas and translators selection for words under the theory of eco-translatology at that time period and social background. Finally, the author concludes how eco-translatology theory could be beneficial in serving practical use in translation.

NEW INSPIRATION FROM CHINA'S PHILOSOPHY OF "UNITY OF MAN AND HEAVEN": CONTEMPORARY INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS UNDER THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC

Abstract: The danger of the novel coronavirus has not yet come to an end, and new variants have begun to attack the world. What philosophy should humankind’s strategy be based on when human society as a group is fighting against Covid-19, as the pandemic ravages the world? Unfortunately, political leaders of various countries have failed to achieve the overall awareness of attacking the pandemic for a shared future for mankind so far. In the face of the pandemic, mankind as a whole urgently needs to break through the narrow nation-oriented ideology of seeking only self-protection. The International Community should establish a new type of international cooperation featuring the concept of harmony of "all things under heaven as a unity". The international relations system dominated by the power ofwestern discourse is now in a bottleneck. The main aim of this article is to study the ancient Chinese wisdom of "the Unity of Man and Heaven" philosophy and build a global harmonious community. The author argues that the “export” of the aforementioned wisdom must be a priority for Chinese scholars. Keywords: Tao; Unity of Man and Heaven; Novel Coronavirus; Anthropocentrism; Harmony.

Reading the Zhuangzi playfully: Stepping back from ‘Ancient Chinese Wisdom’

ABSTRACT Playfulness and humor are often recognized as key components of the Zhuangzi. Despite this, the text itself is rarely read in a playful or humorous manner. It is commonly treated, even in its most jesting moments, as representative of solemn “Ancient Chinese Wisdom.” This paper seeks to recognize the playfulness and humor in the Zhuangzi not simply as a means or method for elaborating some more grave philosophical message; playfulness itself is both the means and message. Read in this way many contemporary debates over labeling the Zhuangzi as being a guru-text, or advocating skepticism, relativism, perspectivism, or else being ethical, amoral, political or apolitical—become less important. The Zhuangzi can thereby break free from the serious “Ancient Chinese Wisdom” attitude commonly attributed to it, and the philosophical contributions of a self-proclaimed “reckless” text, that begins with a quote from the likely fictitious “Equalizing Jokebook,” take on a new light.

International cooperation for counter-terrorism: a strategic perspective

ABSTRACTThe three evil forces of terrorism, separatism and extremism have proliferated around the world, creating pandemonium and causing panic. While terrorists appear to have a symbiotic relationship among themselves, such synergy is patently missing among the governments of nations. This paper advocates that there exists a strategic rationale for international cooperation for counter-terrorism, both in ancient Chinese wisdom and in contemporary game theory. By revealing clear strategic advantages, this paper aims to influence policy-makers of various countries to prioritise mutual cooperation for mutual benefit.

Daoist Onto-Un-Learning as a Radical Form of Study: Re-imagining Study and Learning from an Eastern Perspective

Within educational philosophy and theory, there has been an international re-turn to envision study as an alternative formation to disrupt the defining learning logic. As an enrichment, this paper articulates “Daoist onto-un-learning” as an Eastern form of study, drawing upon Roger Ames’s (Confucian role ethics: a vocabulary, Chinese University Press, Hong Kong, 2011) interpretation of the ancient Chinese correlative cosmology and relational personhood thinking. This articulation is to dialogue with the conceptualizations of study (with) shared by Giorgio Agamben, Derek Ford, and Tyson Lewis, and unfolds in three steps. First, I examine how their conceptualizations of study (with) constrain the studier-doing-study logic as a commonsensical expression of “foundational individualism” (Rosemont and Ames in Confucian role ethics: a moral vision for the 21st century?, VetR Unipress, Gottingen, 2016) and anthropocentric disordering (Harari in Sapiens: a brief history of humankind, Vintage, London, 2015). Second, re-invoking the ancient Chinese wisdom, I envision “Daoist onto-un-learning” as a non-individualistic and non-anthropocentric form of study, re-configuring study and learning no longer as two disparate, if not necessarily oppositional, formations but into a Daoist bipolar yin-yang movement. Finally, I story-tell my doctoral research experience as a Daoist onto-un-learning journey, a spiralling learning-study movement, to unpack the ways it suspends and overturns the modern-Western(nized) trap/trope of anthropocentric-foundational individualism. In so doing, this paper further internationalizes and supplements the current study scholarship in relation to learning in a way so-far hardly explored yet cross-culturally provocative.

Supplementing Western Perspectives of Learner-Centered Instruction With a Daoist Approach Towards Authentic Power Sharing in the Classroom

Learner-centered teaching (LCT) has one main focus – learners and learning! With learner-centered teaching, the traditional roles of the instructor and learners change. In this paper, we draw various parallels between learner-centered instruction and ancient Chinese wisdom based on Daoist perspectives to further promote and support learner-centered teaching among instructors, in particular college instructors. Daoist wisdom is a philosophy based on living in peace and harmony with the way everything is in nature, and it encourages sharing of power with students, which ultimately engenders trust. This paper will present and discuss the key characteristics of learner-centered instruction alongside ancient Daoist perspectives that align with and promote and support this type of instruction. These learner-centered characteristics include 1) the instructor as a facilitator of learning, 2) sharing of power and control with learners, 3) student participation and responsibility for learning, 4) collaboration among learners, 5) higher-order skills instruction and development, and 6) evaluation for learning purposes. This paper is organized based on these interrelated and interdependent characteristics of LCT and their relationship to ancient Daoist perspectives, which can support instructors in applying learner-centered instructional methods.

Life Nurturing in the Illustrated Daoyin of the 24 Solar Terms (二十四节气)

China's “24 Solar Terms”, known as the fifth invention after China's Four Major Inventions, is a knowledge system and social practice formed through observations of the sun's annual motion, and cognition of the year's changes in season, climate and phenology. More and more people in the world have been eager to know more about it since UNESCO inscribed China's “24 Solar Terms” on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2016. As a way of nurturing life, the Illustrated Daoyin of the 24 Solar Terms includes twenty-four exercise forms, corresponding to the 24 solar terms respectively, which reflects the significant idea of complying with the law of yin-yang changes in the universe. It presents a series of sitting and standing exercises designed to prevent diseases that occur during seasonal changes throughout the year. The ancient Chinese wisdom of time and life nurturing has been witnessed in China's “24 Solar Terms” and “Illustrated Daoyin of the 24 Solar Terms”. This article aims to arouse readers’ concern and interest in life nurturing by introducing how to do all the exercises presented by the Illustrated Daoyin of the 24 Solar Terms, which is helpful to the prevention and cure of diseases as well as good for health.

Law of Creation and Grand Unification Theory

The understanding about the creation of our universe is explored in many philosophies, natural sciences, religions, ideologies, traditions and many other disciplines. Currently, natural science cannot answer this question at the most fundamental level. In this work, based on the ancient Chinese Tao wisdom about creation, we propose the Law of Tao Yin–Yang Creation. This law states that everything is created from emptiness through yin–yang interaction. Yin and yang are the two basic elements that make up everything. Yin and yang are opposite, relative, co-created, inseparable and co-dependent. The Law of Tao Yin–Yang Creation gives us a deeper insight about space and time. We propose that space and time are two basic measurements we conduct. Time relates to the measurement of movement and change. Space relates to the measurement of stillness and solidity. Space and time are a yin–yang pair. Interaction of two fundamental yin–yang pairs, the space and time yin–yang pair and the inclusion and exclusion duality pair, create our universe. We demonstrate that from this insight, one can derive string theory, superstring or M-theory and the universal wave function interpretation of string theory. We suggest that the Law of Tao Yin–Yang Creation presents the exact process how “it from bit” and it could be the fundamental principle leading to the grand unification theory and the theory of everything.

How to Approach the Ancient Chinese Wisdom? A Commentary Concerning Sun Tzu'sThe Art of War

The central theme of this commentary is thatThe Art of Waris not only highly useful for Chinese business historically in particular, but also universally relevant for global business (including Chinese business as an integral part) in general at the present time and also in the future. We will discuss three issues to elaborate the above central theme: (1) the essence ofThe Art of War, (2) its historical relevance, and (3) its modern and global implications.

Hetu and Luoshu: Retrospect and Prospection

Hetu and Luoshu, the cultural heritages that reflect ancient Chinese wisdom, are the origins of Heluo culture. The paper will focus on the present study of Hetu and Luoshu and give a prospection of the study trend by combing and analyzing related texts and documentaries. Hetu and Luoshu, or the Yellow River trigrams and the Luo River trigrams, also the first mystical images in Chinese graphemic culture, are regarded as the origin of Heluo culture and feature prominently in the history of Chinese culture and Chinese thoughts. The Legend of Hetu and Luoshu, which was included in the fourth group of National Intangible Cultural Heritage List in 2014, is the fountainhead of Chinese nation and witness the long history of Chinese civilization.

So Said Laozi: How Daoism Explains 'Creating Shared Value'

In January 2011 Harvard Business School Professor Michael Porter and his long-time corporate responsibility collaborator Mark Kramer advanced the principle of “Creating Shared Value” (CSV). Heralded as “The Big Idea” in the Harvard Business Review, CSV promised to transcend the longstanding divide between a company’s pursuit of financial profit and its larger obligations to society. Though the likes of the Clinton Global Initiative have backed CSV, many commentators have criticized it as being either a cherry-picked version of “Corporate Social Responsibility” (CSR), and therefore unoriginal, or simply an unrealistic socio-economic agenda. Daoism, an ancient Chinese wisdom, dispels this latter skepticism by explaining why CSV is possible and how such a change would work in practice. It also shows how CSR, and the economic system upon which it is based, is unsustainable. In the end, Daoism suggests that CSV may even hold the key to returning society to a genuine state of liberty.

Adiponutrin (PNPLA3) in liver fibrogenesis: Is unaltered HepG2 cell line a better model system compared to murine models?

Alcoholic liver disease is a major source of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Twin studies had demonstrated heritability of alcoholic liver disease. Although to date only Adiponutrin (PNPLA3) rs738409 polymorphism (I148M) had been unequivocally proved to be associated with increased risk of alcoholic liver disease across different ethnicities. This protein was previously thought to have a predominant lipolytic role. However, recent investigations have provided evidence of lipogenic activity of this protein. The current hypothesis paper is summarizing the recent evidences gleaned in biological role of Adiponutrin and bioinformatic pointers towards a role in lipid trafficking. A critical appraisal of the utility of murine models and cell based systems in investigating Adiponutrin is also presented. As the HepG2 cell line harbors the I148M mutation in homozygous state it is hypothesized that this should represent an ideal model system for PNPLA3 biology. Thus, as Adiponutrin is proposed as having both lipolytic and lipogenic/lipid trafficking roles it is termed as a Yin–Yang protein in analogy to ancient Chinese wisdom.

An ancient Chinese wisdom for metabolic engineering: Yin-Yang.

In ancient Chinese philosophy, Yin-Yang describes two contrary forces that are interconnected and interdependent. This concept also holds true in microbial cell factories, where Yin represents energy metabolism in the form of ATP, and Yang represents carbon metabolism. Current biotechnology can effectively edit the microbial genome or introduce novel enzymes to redirect carbon fluxes. On the other hand, microbial metabolism loses significant free energy as heat when converting sugar into ATP; while maintenance energy expenditures further aggravate ATP shortage. The limitation of cell “powerhouse” prevents hosts from achieving high carbon yields and rates. Via an Escherichia coli flux balance analysis model, we further demonstrate the penalty of ATP cost on biofuel synthesis. To ensure cell powerhouse being sufficient in microbial cell factories, we propose five principles: 1. Take advantage of native pathways for product synthesis. 2. Pursue biosynthesis relying only on pathways or genetic parts without significant ATP burden. 3. Combine microbial production with chemical conversions (semi-biosynthesis) to reduce biosynthesis steps. 4. Create “minimal cells” or use non-model microbial hosts with higher energy fitness. 5. Develop a photosynthesis chassis that can utilize light energy and cheap carbon feedstocks. Meanwhile, metabolic flux analysis can be used to quantify both carbon and energy metabolisms. The fluxomics results are essential to evaluate the industrial potential of laboratory strains, avoiding false starts and dead ends during metabolic engineering.

Dispatch Troops Without a Just Cause: Fish Islands Dispute and Taiwan's Netizenss Sentiments Toward Japan and China

Fish islands dispute has caused tensions among China, Japan and Taiwan for decades. Though Taiwanese government keeps a low profile on the dispute, the issue has flared up online discussion among Taiwan’s netizens. Many consider Taiwanese people more pro-Japan than other countries in East Asia, as elder generation living on the island shares nostalgia toward Japan, and as its younger generation charmed by Japanese manga and anime, let alone Taiwan being the top donor to Japan’s 311 earthquake. In this vein, Taiwanese people should accommodate well with Japan. However, Fish islands dispute may tell another story.The act of Japanese government to nationalize Fish islands this year (2012) has provoked anger among its neighbor countries. It has mentioned in ancient Chinese wisdom by Sun Zi in The Art of War: “A just cause premises dispatching troops.” However, to nationalize Fish islands and even dispatch coast guard vessels to protect the islands are deemed lack of the very just cause by Japan’s neighbor countries, especially China. Are Taiwanese people in favor of Japan’s stance on Fish islands dispute due to the attachment for Japan or the other way round?This paper applies text mining technique and sentiment analysis to the digital data of Taiwan’s largest Bulletin Board System Station – PTT established by college students and extracts postings concerning Fish islands dispute in the past four years (2009-2012). By this bottom-up approach, we aim to examine Taiwan’s netizens’ emotion toward the two hegemonies – i.e., Japan and China and to see whether the strong attachment to Japan has any impact on netizens’ opinions on the dispute.

The Emergence of Contemporary Chinese Enterprise: The Heterogeneity of National Culture, Corporate Controls and Integration Approaches in M&As

AbstractThis article aims to explore the emergence of the three main types of contemporary Chinese enterprises (CCEs),1 the heterogeneity of their underlying cultures beyond Confucianism, their adopted corporate controls and their implications for mergers and acquisitions (M&As). An interdisciplinary literature review is provided to investigate the interrelated concepts between ancient Chinese wisdom, traditional Chinese culture as embedded in its national culture, and dissimilar developments in the corporate culture of CCEs. The implications for corporate controls in relation to postmerger integration approaches are also examined. Theoretical analyses and propositions are then made regarding the reinforcing cultures, adopted corporate controls and the integration approaches among the three main types of CCEs in their M&A initiatives. Through a multiple‐case study of three proposed clusters of CCEs with distinct ownership structures, this article reveals the characteristics of these respective clusters as they seek growth and development through regional and international M&As. The heterogeneity among the clusters is reflected in their variations in human capital, corporate governance, and controls, as well as the efficacy of their M&A activities. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Applying the BaGua to revitalize the creative problem solving process during a goal oriented contest

Ancient Chinese wisdom has had a significant cultural impact, especially the philosophical system known as I-Ching. The BaGua (eight trigrams) provide a systematic method for creative problem solving that can be followed in both daily and professional life. Thus, the present study aimed to determine whether the application of the BaGua to creative problem solving (CPS) processes could be used to construct a model that could enhance problem-solving effectiveness across different domains. Research data were obtained from 188 of the 256 individuals who participated in the 2011 GreenMech contest. The contest required groups of 4 students to assemble parts into an unchained reaction system based on scientific principles and green concepts. Because each team was required to assemble their unchained reaction system in the morning and be evaluated in the afternoon, students were under pressure to solve problem to complete the target job. To underlie the BaGua to the CPS process into five stages corresponding: sensitivity to problem occurrence, mental activation, idea generation, idea transformation, and idea consensus (agreeing on a solution) as the essence of this study. The results of this study indicated that these five stages were directionally and sequentially correlated. All 12 hypotheses were supported except Hypothesis 4 which correlation was explained by beta and alpha brainwaves. The results showed that the BaGua model for CPS was applicable to individuals involved in high-pressure contests.

Romancing the Tao: How Ang Lee Globalized Ancient Chinese Wisdom

Romancing the Tao:How Ang Lee Globalized Ancient Chinese Wisdom Horace L. Fairlamb (bio) . . . a kind of a dream of China, a China that probably never existed, except in my boyhood fantasies in Taiwan. —Ang Lee on Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon Can a traditional culture survive the modern world? Some sociologists and anthropologists have concluded that since traditional cultures are designed for stability and modern cultures designed for growth and change, traditional culture will either be erased by modernity or confined to museums. What is worse, according to some culture and media critics, the past cannot even be represented in the modern world as technology distorts what it mediates by changing conditions of production and reception. The mass production of culture, say some theorists, turns images of the past into distortions, caricatures, fetishes, and idols inevitably removed from the material foundations of modern life. Postmodern theories of culture have challenged the progressivism of some versions of modernity, yielding less categorical notions of the boundary between past and future in postmodern art, suggesting that cultures may mix traditional and modern, high and low, local and global. One of the features of the architectural style to which the term "postmodern" first referred with some regularity was its eclectic mix of old and new features. If the postmodern view of cultural history is less linear than some versions of modernism, might that imply that traditional cultures can find new ways to be represented in a postmodern world? Unfortunately, though postmodernism brackets the progressivist assumption, it also raises doubts about universal truths, which are a standard part of most traditional cultures' self-conceptions. Where postmodernism diminishes our distance from the past in one regard (non-linear history), it sometimes questions our accessibility to it in another sense (the radical contextuality of meaning). [End Page 190] There may be no more technologically progressive medium for representing that past than film. What can one expect, therefore, from a filmmaker who hopes to represent the past in film? To answer this question, we may learn something by comparing images of traditional China in two well-received films of the last twenty-five years: Bernardo Bertolucci's The Last Emperor (1987) and Ang Lee's Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000). It would be hard to find a directorial style more typically European-modernist on the one hand and multicultural-eclectic on the other. Given Lee's frequent interest in the tension between tradition and modernity, this contrast may shed some light on the possibility of representing an alien past in a postmodern world. Moreover, China would appear to be an especially appropriate challenge. To the modern West, traditional China was an alien civilization: distant, mysterious, and self-enclosed by its imperial tradition. Where European civilization was often defined by sibling rivalries, most of China's official history took place at the center of a single, imperial world. True, the West's image of Chinese closure reflected our own colonial interest in market penetration; but cultural closure equally fits China's traditional self-image as the supremely, even sublimely autonomous civilization. The twentieth century abruptly ended that 4,000-year legacy of self-enclosure. The Western point of view on that turbulent finale was stunningly captured by Bertolucci's sumptuous epic. Bertolucci's outsider view emphasized the irony of China's imperial stagnation and its subsequent violation by outside forces. As numerous critics have noted, the film's years in the Forbidden City dwell on the increasingly obvious imprisonment of the boy-emperor, Pu Yi, within the ossified traditions of royalty, a literal entrapment in a palace surrounded by a modernizing society that had left imperial authority behind. Before that film, most Westerners could hardly have imagined so remote a world of ponderous ceremony, aging eunuchs, feces inspectors, and magisterial aloofness. Then, royal entrapment turns to multiple invasions. Once outside the city's walls, Pu Yi's journey witnesses the assault on China by competing political and social forces, including European, Russian, and Japanese. The poignancy of Bertolucci's film depends upon the epically ironic transformation of Pu Yi from emperor to communist scapegoat, a personalized image of China's transformation from autonomous majesty to self-corrupting decrepitude to...