Anatomical Basis Research Articles

Temporomandibular Joint and Mandibular Movement: A Review Temporomandibular Joint

This article is a review article that emphasised on basic anatomy of the temporomandibular joint along with its supporting structures. Also,it relates TMJ with mandibular movements. For a good clinical practice it is really important to understand the basic facts.

Coronary Spasm Due to Pulsed Field Ablation: A State-of-the-Art Review.

With the ever-growing population of patients undergoing cardiac ablation with pulsed electric fields, there is a need to understand secondary effects from the therapy. Coronary artery spasm is one such effect that has recently emerged as the subject of further investigation in electrophysiology literature. This review aims to elucidate the basic anatomy underlying vascular spasm due to pulsed electric fields and the effects of irreversible electroporation on coronary arteries. This review also aims to gather the current preclinical and clinical data regarding the physiology and function of coronary arteries following electroporation.

The Vascular Anatomical Basis for a Well-Designed Reconstruction of the Ala Nasi by a Microsurgical Preauricular Flap Technique

Background: A microsurgical auricular flap represents a single-step technique for the reconstruction of full-thickness defects of the ala nasi. To achieve the best surgical outcomes, it is essential to have an exhaustive knowledge of the vascular network to improve the management of the surgical flap. This study aimed to provide an anatomical and surgical guide for a well-designed reconstruction of the ala nasi using a free preauricular flap. Methods: In this study, three fresh-frozen and two formalin-fixed human head specimens injected with red silicone rubber to enhance the arterial facial system were used. The reconstruction of the full-thickness defect of the ala nasi was performed using a microsurgical auricular flap technique, with the dimensions of the ala nasi and the preauricular flap duly noted. In addition, anatomical dissections were conducted, during which the positions and diameters of the main donor and recipient vessels were measured. Results: A presurgical evaluation was performed to define the flap design. A comparison of the shape and mean dimensions of the ala nasi defect (height 9.66 ± 1.40 mm; thickness 3.52 ± 0.53 mm) and the preauricular flap (height 8.50 ± 2.68 mm; thickness 3.92 ± 1.29 mm) indicated that this flap was an optimal option for the reconstruction of the ala nasi. The surgical procedure involved the full-thickness removal of the ala nasi, and the harvesting and insertion of the preauricular flap. The anatomical measurements demonstrated that the facial artery and veins were the optimal recipient vessels, with a diameter of >1 mm (2.08 ± 0.56 and 2.85 ± 0.74 mm), suitable for anastomosis with the superficial temporal artery and vein (1.86 ± 0.58 and 1.66 ± 0.15 mm). In addition, the postsurgical evaluations indicated a slight mean difference in the thickness (1.14 ± 0.65 mm) and height (1.68 ± 1.18 mm) between the ala nasi and helix and a satisfactory VAS score (7.9 ± 0.57). Conclusions: Our surgical and anatomical data provide compelling evidence in favour of free preauricular flap reconstructions of the ala nasi. This procedure allows for the correct choice of recipient vessels and the creation of a well-designed surgical flap.

Substantial projections from the lateral division of the lateral habenula to the dorsal raphe nucleus and from the lateral habenula to the contralateral ventral tegmental area

The lateral habenular nucleus (LHb) projects to the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) and ventral tegmental area (VTA). Prior studies have reported that the medial division of the LHb (LHb-m) mainly projects to the DRN, while the LHb mainly projects to the ipsilateral VTA; however, due to only a few studies of projection ratio analysis, the degree of projection of minor and major pathways remains unclear, and the potential significance of minor pathways may be overlooked. After injecting the retrograde tracer into the mice DRN, the proportion of labeled neurons was 63.50% in the LHb-m and 36.50% in the lateral division of the LHb (LHb-l). The proportion distributions of labeled neurons were 26.90% in the anterior LHb-m and 73.10% in the posterior LHb-m. When the retrograde tracer was injected into the VTA, the percentage of labeled neurons was 64.85% in the ipsilateral LHb and 35.15% in the contralateral LHb. The number of cells projecting from anterior and posterior ipsilateral LHb-m to the VTA varied among the individual injection sites. Our quantitative analysis with multiple subjects showed that the projections from LHb-l to DRN and from LHb to contralateral VTA were indeed minor pathways, however, they were substantial. These results provide an anatomical basis for the potential importance of minor pathways projected from the LHb to the VTA and DRN and for the difference in the densities of neurons projecting from the anterior and posterior LHb-m to the DRN.

Is the Sublingual Artery a Reliable Alternative for Intraoral Anastomoses in Head and Neck Free-Flap Reconstruction? Anatomical Basis and Preliminary Results

Background/Objectives: Head and neck free-flap reconstructions are often required to treat tumors or extensive post-traumatic jaw defects. The facial artery is the standard receiving vessel for intraoral microvascular anastomoses. However, its use is associated with several disadvantages, such as lesions of buccal nerve branches of the facial nerve or the parotid duct, as well as variability in course and diameter. The aim of this study is to investigate whether branches of the sublingual artery can be considered as an alternative intraoral supply vessel to the facial artery to avoid these drawbacks. Methods: Twelve formalin-fixed cadaveric heads with 24 sides (n = 24) were dissected. The origin, course, branching pattern, and distribution of the sublingual artery were examined. In addition, the diameters of the branches of the sublingual artery were assessed to identify potential supply vessels for anastomoses. Results: In ten of the twenty-four cases (41.7%), the sublingual artery originated from the lingual artery, and in nine cases (37.5%), the lingual artery originated from the facial artery. The main trunk of the sublingual artery was present in the floor of the mouth in all cases (100%), with a diameter of ≥0.9 mm in vitro (1 mm in vivo). In 15 of the 24 half heads (62.5%), branches of the sublingual artery with ≥0.9 mm were identified in this space, with the main branch being considerably stronger. Conclusions: The large diameter of the sublingual artery in the floor of the mandible suggests that this vessel or its branches could be considered as alternative pedicles for intraoral anastomoses in mandibular microvascular free-flap grafts.

Histological features of the Purkinje neurons of the Albino rat (Rattus norvegicus) following letrozole administration.

Aromatase inhibitors are increasingly being used as adjuvant therapy for hormone-responsive cancers. These drugs may reduce the endogenous estrogen production in the cerebellum. Prolonged use has been associated with symptoms such as ataxia, poorer balance performance and diminished verbal memory, suggesting impaired cerebellar function. Thus, this study sought to outline the structural basis for the cerebellar deficits observed. Twenty-seven male rats (3 baseline, 15 experimental, 9 control) aged three months were recruited with the intervention group receiving 0.5 mg/kg of letrozole daily for 50 days by oral gavage while the control group received normal saline. Their cerebella were harvested for histological processing on days 20, 35, and 50. Photomicrographs were taken and analysed using Fiji ImageJ software. The dendritic spine densities and Purkinje linear densities were coded and analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 25.0. A P-value of ≤0.05 was considered significant. A temporal decline in the Purkinje linear density as well as pyknosis and cytoplasmic eosinophilia was noted in the intervention group (P=0.1). Further, the dendritic spine density of the Purkinje neurons in the intervention group was markedly reduced (P=0.01). The reduction in the linear cell density and the dendritic spine density of the Purkinje cells following letrozole administration may provide an anatomical basis for the functional cerebellar deficits seen in chronic aromatase inhibitor use.

Camillo Golgi's contributions to the anatomic basis of sensitivity in tendons.

Between 1878 and 1880 Camillo Golgi, professor of Histology and General Pathology at the University of Pavia, studied the termination of the nerves inside the tendons, near their muscular insertion. He defined two fundamental categories of corpuscles. The first type, which he called muscle-tendon terminal organs, was morphologically characterized by spindle structures which at one end seemed to relate to the muscle fibers while at the other end they gradually merged with the tendon bundles. Golgi discovered that these structures received from one to four myelinated nerve fibers, which lost their myelin sheath as they entered the bundle, within which they divided dichotically, ending in a large number of terminal arborizations that had the appearance of reticular intertwines. In the superficial thickness of the tendon, near the muscle, Golgi also noticed a second category of corpuscles, which he described as claviform bodies or formations similar to Pacinian bodies. In 1890 Vittorio Mazzoni precisely defined their morphological characteristics. These corpuscles were later called Golgi muscle-tendon organs and Golgi-Mazzoni corpuscles. On the basis of their position and histological appearance, Golgi also correctly hypothesized their physiological role: to be receptors of muscular tension for the muscle-tendon organs and transducers of sensitivity to touch and pressure for the Golgi-Mazzoni corpuscles.

Neurosurgical skills conference for medical students: A before and after study.

Undergraduate conferences may improve exposure to neurosurgery among medical students. Hence, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of a neurosurgical skills conference on medical students' comprehension and perceptions of the specialty. A before-and-after (BA) study design was employed to assess the effects of a conference that integrated presentations with hands-on sessions. Practical workshops covered craniotomy, spinal fixation, surface anatomy, intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring, basic surgical skills, and microsurgical simulation. Pre-conference and post-conference surveys, utilizing Likert scales, gauged participants' attitudes, prior neurosurgical exposure, and understanding of neurosurgical skills. Statistical analysis was conducted on dichotomized responses. Thirty-one participants completed both surveys, with the majority being 1st and 2nd-year medical students. Among the participants, 58.1% were female, and 77.4% identified with BAME ethnicities. Following the conference, there was a notable increase in comprehension regarding neurosurgical careers (from 58.1% to 96.8%, P < 0.001) and training criteria (from 22.6% to 93.5%, P < 0.001). The conference enhanced knowledge of indications for craniotomy (P < 0.001), ICP monitoring (P < 0.001), and spinal fixation (P < 0.001). Participants reported improved understanding of the steps involved in craniotomy (P < 0.001), familiarity with basic cranial surgical surface anatomy (P < 0.001), and confidence in performing basic surgical instrument ties (P < 0.001). Although interest in pursuing a career in neurosurgery remained high (from 87.1% to 90.3%, P = 1.000), a majority of participants, both BA the conference, expressed concerns about the impact on personal life (from 58.1% to 64.5%, P = 0.774). This study underscores the role of undergraduate mixed-method conferences in augmenting understanding of neurosurgery and nurturing early interest.

Anatomical research and clinical application of multistage advancement in dorsal finger V-Y flap.

To investigate the anatomical basis and clinical efficiency of the advancement distance in dorsal digital V-Y advancement flap. Thirty-four fingers in 11 fresh adult hand specimen were selected, V-Y flap was performed with the digital artery as vascular pedicle, and the advancement distance was measured. The relationship between the distance and extensibility of skin, sliding degree of subcutaneous superficial fascia, angular displacement of digital arterial dorsal branch, elasticity of digital artery was discussed. Two cases were provided to demonstrate the feasibility and importance of this flap. In the dorsal digital V-Y advancement flap simulated on fresh adult hand specimens, the mean advance distance of the middle segment flap and proximal segment flap is 18 ± 0.8 mm and 34 ± 1.7 mm, respectively, and the maximum can reach 24 and 45 mm, respectively. Two cases of dorsal digital V-Y advancement flaps were designed and performed in the dorsal side of the ring finger middle segment and the thumb proximal segment, respectively. The advancement distances were 25 and26mm, respectively. All flaps survived completely and the incisions healed by first intention. The flap texture wasgood, the affected finger was symmetrical, and the activity and sensation restored well. The dorsal digital V-Y advancement flap with the digital artery as the main vascular pedicle can exert four factors for advancement effect, and significantly increase the advancement distance. The operation is simple, the blood supply is reliable, and the postoperative sensation is normal. It is an ideal flap for repairing the digital dorsal defect.

Symposium Highlight: PULMONARY LYMPHATICS HISTORY, ANATOMY, AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY: EMERGING KNOWLEDGE AND A LOOK TO THE FUTURE

Central lymphatic disorders of the lung have not received intense investigation. Lymphatic system physiology is presented in the context of historical developments and basic lung lymphatic anatomy is reviewed followed by emerging characteristics of primary and secondary pathophysiological disturbances of lymphatic involvement in a number of pulmonary diseases including Gorham-Stout disease, pulmonary edema and infections and inflammatory conditions including lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM). The future includes potential molecular targeting of lymphangiogenesis or lymphatic vessels for interventional occlusion. This article is an amalgamation of presentations at the 2023 ISL International Congress of Lymphology, Genoa, Italy in a special symposium on central and regional lymphatic system in health and disease and as part of a Special Symposium on the Lymphatic system of the Heart and Lung in Health and Disease at the 26th International Congress of Lymphology meeting held in Barcelona, Spain, September 2017, which has been updated to 2024.

Extrarenal Visceral Arteries Injuries during Left Radical Nephrectomy: A 50-Year Continuing Problem

Due to their proximity to the left renal hilum, injuries to the superior mesenteric artery and celiac trunk are still reported during left radical nephrectomy, whether performed via open, laparoscopic, or robotic methods. The aim of this 50-year narrative review is to emphasize the anatomical and pathophysiological bases, risk factors, and strategies for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of such injuries.

The relationship between white matter architecture and language lateralisation in the healthy brain.

Interhemispheric anatomical differences have long been thought to be related to language lateralisation. Previous studies have explored whether asymmetries in the diffusion characteristics of white matter language tracts are consistent with language lateralisation. These studies, typically with smaller cohorts, yielded mixed results. This study investigated whether connectomic analysis of quantitative anisotropy (QA) and shape features of white matter tracts across the whole brain are associated with language lateralisation. We analysed 1040 healthy individuals (562 females) from the Human Connectome Project database. Hemispheric language dominance for each participant was quantified using a laterality quotient (LQ) derived from fMRI activation in regions of interest (ROIs) associated with a language comprehension task compared against a math task. A linear regression model was used to examine the relationship between structural asymmetry and functional lateralisation. Connectometry revealed a significant negative correlation between LQs and QA of corpus callosum tracts, indicating that higher QA in these regions is associated with bilateral and right-hemisphere language representation in frontal and temporal regions, respectively. Left language laterality in temporal lobe was significantly associated with longer right inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus (IFOF) and forceps minor tracts. These results suggest that diffusion measures of microstructural architecture as well as geometrical features of reconstructed white matter tracts play a role in language lateralisation. People with increased dependence on right or both frontal hemispheres for language processing may have more developed commissural fibres, which may support more efficient interhemispheric communication.Significance statement The left cerebral hemisphere is dominant for language functions in most people. In some healthy people, language functions are lateralised to the right hemisphere or distributed across both hemispheres. The anatomy underlying patterns of hemispheric language dominance are not well established. Emerging evidence suggests that white matter connectivity and architecture is an important feature of cortical functional organisation. In this work, we report that people who have language functions distributed across both hemispheres have greater inter-hemispheric connectivity compared to lateralised people. Our findings provide further insights into the anatomical basis of language function and may have wider clinical implications.

Implementation of a Standardized Process of Coude Catheter Insertion Decreases Traumatic Catheterizations

ObjectiveTo address the issue of traumatic foley catheterization we developed and implemented a coude catheter education program for operating room nurses as well as standardize the usage of a coude catheter for male patients. Traumatic catheterization leads to patient morbidity and increased healthcare costs. MethodsA retrospective review was conducted to identify all traumatic catherizations over a 6-month period for several surgical services at our institution. A nursing education program was implemented that included basic urological anatomy, coude urethral catheter insertion techniques, and catheter safety. We conducted our trial over a period of 2-months with all catheterizations tracked. Following the trial, the process and outcomes were reviewed and then implemented for all male patients >18 years old requiring indwelling catheter placement in the operating room. ResultsOn retrospective review there were 18 traumatic foley catheterizations of patients on the three surgical services out of a total 601 catheter placements (3% traumatic placement rate). The total cost of these traumatic catherizations was $27,793 when accounting for additional procedures, supplies, and additional OR time required for each traumatic catheterization. The average cost per patient was $1,544. After full implementation of the process across all operating room services in June 2021 there have been 2038 catheterizations performed using a coude catheter kit with 4 traumatic foley placements through May 2022 (0.2% traumatic catheterization rate). ConclusionImplementation of the nursing education program and utilization of the coude catheter for all male catheterizations reduces costs, decreases iatrogenic urethral injury, and improves patient safety.

Thinning of the Medial Sural Artery Perforator Flap: The Anatomical Examination of the Medial Sural Artery Perforator Branch.

The medial sural artery perforator (MSAP) flap is thin, pliable, and versatile. This study aims to understand the anatomical basis of the MSAP flap and the subcutaneous course of the perforator for safe flap thinning. A total of 24 MSAP flaps were dissected under red silicone dye injection guidance. Full-thickness horizontal slides of flaps were performed, and the perforator courses were identified in the subcutaneous plane. Slides were placed on a millimeter board, and the perforator patterns were photographed and observed with loupes. A total of 68 perforator courses were identified: type 1: 30.9%, type 2: 57.3%, and type 3: 11.8%. They traveled 1-25 mm to the subdermal plexus, with percentile 2.5 at 1 mm, percentile 90 at 18.2 mm, percentile 95 at 21.65 mm, and percentile 100 at 25 mm. The mean flap thickness was 7.75 ± 1.7 mm, with an average of 5.7 ± 1.3 perforators per flap. Perforators clustered between 2 and 18.4 cm from the popliteal crease and 0-8 cm from the posterior midline of the leg. The dominant perforators accounted for 45.2% (62 of 137), averaging 2.58 per flap. The medial sural artery branching pattern types were type 1: 37.5%, type 2: 50%, and type 3: 12.5%. The average pedicle length was 16.2 ± 1.3 cm, and the mean external diameter of the medial sural artery was 1.98 ± 0.13 mm. MSAPs branch within a maximal radius of 2.5 cm after emerging from the deep fascia. To maintain vascularity, the safe suprafascial dissection should be 2.5 cm apart from the point of emerging.

Endoscopic transnasal prelacrimal recess approach via the orbital floor to the infraorbital region: an anatomical study.

The aim of this study is to describe the maximum exposure of the infraorbital region via the orbital floor using the transnasal prelacrimal recess approach (PLRA), and to provide an anatomical basis for treating lesions in the infraorbital region. Ten freshly injected frozen heads were dissected using the PLRA. The orbital floor was removed along the border of the medial infraorbital quadrangle, and the periorbita was opened to expose the infraorbital region. The areas of the medial infraorbital quadrangles were measured and analyzed. The PLRA was applied separately on the left and right sides of each cadaver head, resulting in a total of 20 prelacrimal recess approaches. The PLRA enabled visualization of the optic nerve and the central retinal artery through the orbital floor. By integrating both medial and lateral approaches in relation to the inferior rectus muscle, all crucial anatomical structures within the infraorbital region could be clearly identified. The area of the medial infraorbital quadrangle was 420.65 ± 24.03 mm2. The PLRA provides access through the orbital floor to the maximum boundary of the infraorbital region, including the lateral orbital wall at the outermost level, the superior rectus muscle at the topmost level, and the medial orbital wall at the innermost level.

Capabilities and Limitations of ChatGPT in Anatomy Education: An Interaction With ChatGPT.

The growing interest in using ChatGPT (OpenAI, San Francisco, CA) in the medical field highlights the need for in-depth knowledge of its potential and constraints, especially when it comes to anatomy education (AE). Because of its sophisticated natural language processing abilities, it can understand the nuances of anatomical concepts, provide advanced as well as contextually relevant information, and could be a helpful tool for medical students and educators. This study aimed to analyze the capabilities and limitations of ChatGPT and its best possible application in AE. The study incorporated 34 questions that were inquired to ChatGPT after acquiring an online subscription to the 4th version. The questions were arbitrarily formulated after consensus among the researchers. The chatbot's replies were recorded and evaluated with reference to perfection, validity, and appropriateness. ChatGPT was observed to be a useful interactive tool for medical students to comprehend the clinical importance and characteristics of anatomical structures. The chatbot clarified the anatomical basis of ischemic heart disease and adequately tabulated the differences between the arteries and veins. Even thoughChatGPT-4 was able to produce images of different anatomical structures, it fell short of accurately displaying the necessary features. Further, the chatbot generated quizzes, including multiple-choice, true-false, fill-in-the-blank, matching, and case-based questions, formulated a relevant overview of the lecture, and also analyzed answers to anatomy questions with adequate reasoning. ChatGPT can be a useful educational resource for medical students with the potential to play a crucial role in AE if employed in a methodical way. It imparts significant aid to the anatomy teachers during the execution of the medical curriculumand enhances their jobs while it never takes the place of an educator.

An Anatomical and Physiological Basis for Flexible Coincidence Detection in the Auditory System.

Animals navigate the auditory world by recognizing complex sounds, from the rustle of a predator to the call of a potential mate. This ability depends in part on the octopus cells of the auditory brainstem, which respond to multiple frequencies that change over time, as occurs in natural stimuli. Unlike the average neuron, which integrates inputs over time on the order of tens of milliseconds, octopus cells must detect momentary coincidence of excitatory inputs from the cochlea during an ongoing sound on both the millisecond and submillisecond time scale. Here, we show that octopus cells receive inhibitory inputs on their dendrites that enhance opportunities for coincidence detection in the cell body, thereby allowing for responses both to rapid onsets at the beginning of a sound and to frequency modulations during the sound. This mechanism is crucial for the fundamental process of integrating the synchronized frequencies of natural auditory signals over time.

The right lymphatic duct: basic anatomy and clinical relevance.

The anatomical variability of the thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct predisposes them to inadvertent damage following head and neck surgery thereby leading to chyle leak which is an uncommon complication with potentially significant associated morbidity. Although chyle leak is predominately associated with left-sided neck surgery, it also occurs as a complication of the right-sided neck dissection. Variable figures concerning chyle leakage after right-sided neck dissections were reported, ranging from 0 per cent to higher prevalences such as 14%, 24%, 33% and 60% of total cases of chyle leakages associated with neck surgery. The right-sided complications may implicate the right lymphatic duct and right-sided terminations of the thoracic duct into the venous system which occur in about 1-6% of humans. Other clinically relevant conditions involving the right-sided major lymphatic vessels include chyle leaks following right anterior cervical spine surgery, cysts of the right lymphatic duct and dilatation of the right lymphatic duct in the setting of recurrent cervical swelling. This article presents a review of the literature concerning the basic anatomy and the clinical relevance of the right lymphatic duct and the right-sided terminations of the thoracic duct into the venous circulation.

“Visualization matters” – stereoscopic visualization of 3D graphic neuroanatomic models through AnaVu enhances basic recall and radiologic anatomy learning when compared with monoscopy

BackgroundThe authors had previously developed AnaVu, a low-resource 3D visualization tool for stereoscopic/monoscopic projection of 3D models generated from pre-segmented MRI neuroimaging data. However, its utility in neuroanatomical education compared to conventional methods (specifically whether the stereoscopic or monoscopic mode is more effective) is still unclear.MethodsA three-limb randomized controlled trial was designed. A sample (n = 152) from the 2022 cohort of MBBS students at Government Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram (GMCT), was randomly selected from those who gave informed consent. After a one-hour introductory lecture on brainstem anatomy and a dissection session, students were randomized to three groups (S – Stereo; M – Mono and C – Control). S was given a 20-min demonstration on the brainstem lesson module in AnaVu in stereoscopic mode. M was given the same demonstration, but in monoscopic mode. The C group was taught using white-board drawn diagrams. Pre-intervention and post-intervention tests for four domains (basic recall, analytical, radiological anatomy and diagram-based questions) were conducted before and after the intervention. Cognitive loads were measured using a pre-validated tool. The groups were then swapped -S→ M, M →S and C→S, and they were asked to compare the modes.ResultsFor basic recall questions, there was a statistically significant increase in the pre/post-intervention score difference of the S group when compared to the M group [p = 0.03; post hoc analysis, Bonferroni corrections applied] and the C group [p = 0.001; ANOVA test; post hoc analysis, Bonferroni corrections applied]. For radiological anatomy questions, the difference was significantly higher for S compared to C [p < 0.001; ANOVA test; post hoc analysis, Bonferroni corrections applied]. Cognitive load scores showed increased mean germane load for S (33.28 ± 5.35) and M (32.80 ± 7.91) compared with C (28.18 ± 8.17). Subjective feedbacks showed general advantage for S and M compared to C. Out of the S and M swap cohorts, 79/102 preferred S, 13/102 preferred M, and 6/102 preferred both.ConclusionsAnaVu tool seems to be effective for learning neuroanatomy. The specific advantage seen when taught with stereoscopy in basic recall and radiological anatomy learning shows the importance of how visualization mode influences neuroanatomy learning. Since both S and M are preferred in subjective feedbacks, these results have implications in choosing methods (stereoscopic – needs 3D projectors; monoscopic – needs web based or hand-held devices) to scale AnaVu for anatomy teaching in medical colleges in India. Since stereoscopic projection is technically novel and cost considerations are slightly higher compared to monoscopic projection, the specific advantages and disadvantages of each are relevant in the Indian medical education scenario.

Book review: Anatomic Basis of Neurologic Diagnosis, 2nd edition

Book review: Anatomic Basis of Neurologic Diagnosis, 2nd edition