Anaerobic Bacterial Populations Research Articles

Inclusion of Sorghum in Cyprinus carpio L. Diet: Effects on Growth, Flesh Quality, Microbiota, and Oxidative Status.

This study investigates the impact of including sorghum in the diet of the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) on its growth, blood parameters, meat composition, intestinal microbiota, and oxidative stress. Experimental diets with varying sorghum content (0%-V0 or control, 10%-V1, 20%-V2, and 30%-V3) were administered to carp weighing 43 g initially. Notably, in the 30% variant, sorghum entirely replaced corn and barley in the diet. Chemical analysis of sorghum unveiled a protein content of 14% and a fat content of 3.9%. Sorghum inclusion led to a decline in final body weight and weight gain, particularly notable in the V3 group with 30% sorghum. However, other physiological parameters, such as feed conversion ratio, specific growth rate, and organ indices, remained unaffected. Protein and salt content in carp flesh increased with higher sorghum inclusion levels, while hematological parameters showed minimal variations. Analysis of the intestinal microbiota revealed increases in both aerobic and anaerobic bacterial populations with sorghum inclusion. Furthermore, sorghum concentration inversely correlated with glutathione levels and positively correlated with malondialdehyde content, indicating a disruption of antioxidant defense mechanisms and elevated oxidative stress.

Combinatorial fluorescent labeling of live anaerobic bacteria via the incorporation of azide-modified sugars into newly synthesized macromolecules.

The human gut microbiome modulates physiological functions and pathologies; however, a mechanistic understanding of microbe-host and microbe-microbe interactions remains elusive owing to a lack of suitable approaches to monitor obligate anaerobic bacterial populations. Common genetically encoded fluorescent protein reporters, derived from the green fluorescent protein, require an oxidation step for fluorescent light emission and therefore are not suitable for use in anaerobic microbes residing in the intestine. Fluorescence in situ hybridization is a useful alternative to visualize bacterial communities in their natural niche; however, it requires tissue fixation. We therefore developed an approach for the real-time detection and monitoring of live communities of anaerobic gut commensals in their natural environment. We leverage the bacterial cells' reliance on sugars for macromolecule synthesis in combinatorial click chemistry labeling, where the addition of azide-modified sugars to the culturing media enables the fluorescence labeling of newly synthesized molecules via the addition of combinations of exogenous fluorophores conjugated to cyclooctynes. This process is suitable for labeling communities of live anaerobic gut bacteria with combinations of fluorophores that do not require oxygen to mature and fluoresce, and that can be detected over time in their natural environments. The labeling procedure requires 4-9 d, depending on the varying growth rates of different bacterial strains, and an additional 1-2 d for the detection and monitoring steps. The protocol can be completed by users with basic expertise in bacterial culturing.

Marine Fungi Select and Transport Aerobic and Anaerobic Bacterial Populations from Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon-Contaminated Sediments.

The organization of microbial communities in marine sediment relies on complex biotic and abiotic interactions. Among them, the interaction between fungi and bacteria plays a crucial role building specific microbial assemblages, resulting in metabolic networks adapted to environmental conditions. The fungal-bacterial interaction (FBI) includes bacterial translocation via fungal mycelia, allowing bacterial dispersion, and ecological niche colonization. In order to demonstrate that the translocation of bacteria through fungal mycelia involves bacterial selection, the mycelia of two fungi isolated from marine coastal sediment, Alternaria destruens F10.81 and Fusarium pseudonygamai F5.76, showing different strategies for uptake of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), homogenous internalization and vacuole forming respectively, were used to translocate bacteria through hydrophobic hydrocarbon contaminated sediments. A. destruens F10.81 selected four specific bacteria, while bacterial selection by F. pseudonygamai F5.76 was not evident. Among the bacteria selected by A. destruens F10.81, Spirochaeta litoralis, known as strictly anaerobic bacterium, was identified, indicating that A. destruens F10.81 selects and transports both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. Such a result is consistent with the observed formation of anoxic micro-niches in areas surrounding and affected by fungal hyphae. Our findings provide new insights on the selection and dispersion of bacterial communities by fungi, which are crucial for the organization of microbial communities and their functioning in coastal PAH-contaminated sediments. IMPORTANCE The study provides advances for understanding fungal-bacterial relationships, particularly on the selection and dispersion of bacterial communities by fungi, which are crucial for the organization of microbial communities and their functioning in coastal PAH-contaminated sediments. The transportation of bacteria via fungal hyphae (fungal highway) results in bacterial selection; in particular, fungal hyphae offer adequate conditions for the transport of both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria through hydrophobic patches for the colonization of novel niches.

Total and denitrifying bacterial communities associated with the interception of nitrate leaching by carbon amendment in the subsoil.

Nitrate leaching is severe in greenhouse where excessive nitrogen is often applied to maintain high crop productivities. In this study, we investigated the effects of carbon amendment in the subsoil on nitrate leaching and the emission of greenhouse gases (CH4 and N2O) using a soil column experiment. Carbon amendment resulted in over 39% reduction in nitrate leaching and 25.3% to 60.6% increase of total N content in the subsoil zone as compared to non-amended control. Strikingly, the abundance of nirS, nosZ, and 16S rRNA were higher in the treatment than the corresponding controls while no significant effect was detected for nirK. Carbon amendment explained 14%, 10%, and 4% of the variation in the community of nosZ, nirS, and nirK, respectively. It also considerably (more than 7 times) enriched genera such as Anaerovorax, Pseudobacteroides, Magnetospirillum, Prolixibacter, Sporobacter, Ignavibacterium, Syntrophobacter, Oxobacter, Hydrogenispora, Desulfosporomusa, Mangrovibacterium, and Sporomusa, as revealed by the analysis of 16S rRNA amplicon. Network analysis further uncovered that carbon amendment enriched three microbial hubs which mainly consists of positively correlated nirS, nosZ, and anaerobic bacterial populations. In summary, carbon amendment in the subsoil mitigated nitrate leaching and increased the nitrogen pool by possible activation of denitrifying and anaerobic bacterial populations. KEY POINTS: • Carbon amendment in subsoil reduced NO3- leaching by over 39% under high N input. • Carbon amendment increased the total N in subsoil from 25.3% to 60.6%. • Carbon amendment enriched nirS- and nosZ-type denitrifying bacteria in subsoil.

Dose-response analysis of toxic effect from palm oil mill effluent (POME) by-products on biohydrogen producing bacteria – A preliminary study on microbial density and determination of EC50

The stimulant and toxicity effects of reported organic (acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid, formic acid, oil & grease) and inorganic (copper) by-products presented in palm oil mill effluent on anaerobic bacterial population were examined in this paper. The toxicity test had shown that acetic, propionic and butyric acids tend to stimulate the bacterial density level (survival rate more than 50%), while formic acid, copper, oil and grease were shown to have suppressed the density level (survival rate less than 50%). The highest biomass recorded was 1.66 mg/L for the concentration of acetic acid at 216 mg/L and lowest biomass concentration, 0.90 mg/L for copper at 1.40 mg/L. Biohydrogen-producing bacteria have a favourable growth rate around pH 5.5. The comparison of half maximal effective concentration (EC50) values between two test duration on the effects of organic and inorganic by-products postulate that bacteria had a higher tolerance towards volatile fatty acids. While acetic, butyric and propionic acids had exhibited higher tolerance EC50 values for bacteria, but the opposite trend was observed for formic acid, copper and oil & grease.

Optimal control of leachate recirculation for anaerobic processes in landfills

<p style='text-indent:20px;'>A mathematical model for the degradation of the organic fraction of solid waste in landfills, by means of an anaerobic bacterial population, is proposed. Additional phenomena, like hydrolysis of insoluble substrate and biomass decay, are taken into account. The evolution of the system is monitored by controlling the effects of leachate recirculation on the hydrolytic process. We investigate the optimal strategies to minimize substrate concentration and recirculation operation costs. Analytical and numerical results are presented and discussed for linear and quadratic cost functionals.

Metagenomic characterisation of ruminal bacterial diversity in buffaloes from birth to adulthood using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing

Microbial colonisation in the forestomach of a ruminant is one of the most crucial factors in determining many of its physiological developments and digestive capabilities. The present study attempts to identify establishment pattern of microbes in relation to food, age and rumen development in the buffalo calves at every fortnight interval from birth to 6months of age, followed by every month till animals became 1year of age. Diversity study based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing identified rapidly changing bacterial population during initial 60days of life, which got assemblage as rumen became physiologically mature with increasing age of animals. A lactate fermenting aerobic to facultative anaerobic genera found during initial 30days of life were expeditiously replaced by strict anaerobic cellulolytic bacterial population with increasing age. The study confirms that initial colonisation mainly depends on the oral cavity and skin of the mother, followed by the surrounding environment and feed offered, which is reversed in order once animal gets older. Some of the well-described genera based on culture-dependent studies like Ruminococcus spp. were found to be in lesser proportion suggesting an additional role of other microbes or niche in cellulose degradation. We report the presence of Porphyromonas spp. and Mannheimia glucosidal for the first time in bovine infants.

Determination and Variation of Core Bacterial Community in a Two-Stage Full-Scale Anaerobic Reactor Treating High-Strength Pharmaceutical Wastewater.

Knowledge on the functional characteristics and temporal variation of anaerobic bacterial populations is important for better understanding of the microbial process of two-stage anaerobic reactors. However, owing to the high diversity of anaerobic bacteria, close attention should be prioritized to the frequently abundant bacteria that were defined as core bacteria and putatively functionally important. In this study, using MiSeq sequencing technology, the core bacterial community of 98 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) was determined in a two-stage upflow blanket filter reactor treating pharmaceutical wastewater. The core bacterial community accounted for 61.66% of the total sequences and accurately predicted the sample location in the principal coordinates analysis scatter plot as the total bacterial OTUs did. The core bacterial community in the first-stage (FS) and second-stage (SS) reactors were generally distinct, in that the FS core bacterial community was indicated to be more related to a higher-level fermentation process, and the SS core bacterial community contained more microbes in syntrophic cooperation with methanogens. Moreover, the different responses of the FS and SS core bacterial communities to the temperature shock and influent disturbance caused by solid contamination were fully investigated. Co-occurring analysis at the Order level implied that Bacteroidales, Selenomonadales, Anaerolineales, Syneristales, and Thermotogales might play key roles in anaerobic digestion due to their high abundance and tight correlation with other microbes. These findings advance our knowledge about the core bacterial community and its temporal variability for future comparative research and improvement of the two-stage anaerobic system operation.

Impacts of varying durations of passive oxygen exposure on freshwater denitrifier community structure and function

Fertilizer use has dramatically increased the availability of nitrate (NO3 −) in aquatic systems. Microbe-mediated denitrification is one of the predominant means of NO3 − removal from freshwaters, yet oxygenation (O2)-induced disruptions—e.g., extreme precipitation events—can occur, resulting in a disproportional increase in nitrous oxide (N2O) production and efflux as facultative anaerobic bacterial populations use of O2 as a terminal electron acceptor increases. We examined the effects of 12- and 24-h passive O2 exposure on previously anaerobic bacterial communities focusing on denitrification enzyme activity (DEA), N2O production, and bacterial community 16S rRNA and nitrous oxide reductase gene (nosZ) profiles after 12, 24, and 48 h of anaerobic recovery. Treatments experiencing 24-h O2 exposure had significantly higher DEA 12 h into anaerobic recovery than treatments undergoing 12-h O2 exposure. Initial N2O emissions were significantly lower in the 24-h O2 exposure treatments although by 24 h a dramatic spike (tenfold relative to the 12-h O2 exposure treatments) in N2O concentrations was observed. However, within 6 h (30-h anaerobic recovery) these differences were gone. Community nosZ profiles experiencing 24-h O2 exposure exhibited reduced diversity after 24-h recovery, which corresponded with an increase in N2O emissions. However, after 48 h of anaerobic recovery, nosZ diversity had recovered. These observations highlight the effects of short-term aerobic disruption on denitrification, as well as the effects on the denitrifier community profile. Together, these data suggest that recovery to ambient N cycling is exacerbated by disturbance length due to increased lag time and subsequent loss of denitrifier community diversity.

Anaerobic soil disinfestation reduces survival and infectivity of Phytophthora nicotianae chlamydospores in pepper

Phytophthora nicotianae is the principal causal agent of root and crown rot disease of pepper plants in Extremadura (western Spain), a spring-summer crop in this region. Preplant soil treatment by anaerobic soil disinfestation (ASD) may effectively control plant pathogens in many crop production systems, but field conditions and availability of C sources can limit its practical application. A laboratory experiment was conducted to study P. nicotianae control by ASD with low temperatures and several carbon (C) sources: rice bran, rapeseed cake, grape pomace and brewer’s spent grain. Survival and infectivity of pepper by P. nicotianae chlamydospores were reduced with all C sources assayed and redox potential in all ASD treatments indicated that reductive soil conditions were achieved. Rice bran (20tonsha−1); rapeseed cake (20tonsha−1), and grape pomace (40tonsha−1) were also assayed in a field experiment in early spring. Survival and infectivity of P. nicotianae were also reduced with all C sources. An increase of dehydrogenase and urease activities and a strong pH decline were observed with rice bran and rapeseed cake, probably related to an increase of anaerobic bacterial populations in soil. Application of ASD with high C source rates may be effective in control of P. nicotianae under low temperature conditions.

Frequency of Antibiotic Resistance in a Swine Facility 2.5 Years After a Ban on Antibiotics

The addition of antibiotics to livestock feed has contributed to the selection of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in concentrated animal feeding operations and agricultural ecosystems. The objective of this study was to assess the occurrence of resistance to chlortetracycline and tylosin among bacterial populations at the Swine Complex of McGill University (Province of Quebec, Canada) in the absence of antibiotic administration to pigs for 2.5years prior to the beginning of this study. Feces from ten pigs born from the same sow and provided feed without antibiotic were sampled during suckling (n = 6 for enumerations, n = 10 for PCR), weanling (n = 10 both for PCR and enumerations), growing (n = 10 both for PCR and enumerations), and finishing (n = 10 both for PCR and enumerations). The percentage of chlortetracycline-resistant anaerobic bacterial populations (Tet(R)) was higher than that of tylosin-resistant anaerobic bacterial populations (Tyl(R)) at weanling, growing, and finishing. Prior to the transportation of animals to the slaughterhouse, resistant populations varied between 6.5 and 9.4 Log colony-forming units g humid feces(-1). In all pigs, tet(L), tet(O), and erm(B) were detected at suckling and weanling, whereas only tet(O) was detected at growing and finishing. The abundance of tet(O) was similar between males and females at weanling and growing and reached 5.1 × 10(5) and 5.6 × 10(5) copies of tet(O)/ng of total DNA in males and females, respectively, at finishing. Results showed high abundances and proportions of Tet(R) and Tyl(R) anaerobic bacterial populations, as well as the occurrence of tet and erm resistance genes within these populations despite the absence of antibiotic administration to pigs at this swine production facility since January 2007, i.e., 2.5years prior to the beginning of this study. This work showed that the occurrence of bacterial resistance to chlortetracycline and tylosin is high at the Swine Complex of McGill University.

Diversity of anaerobic microbes in spacecraft assembly clean rooms.

Although the cultivable and noncultivable microbial diversity of spacecraft assembly clean rooms has been previously documented using conventional and state-of-the-art molecular techniques, the occurrence of obligate anaerobes within these clean rooms is still uncertain. Therefore, anaerobic bacterial communities of three clean-room facilities were analyzed during assembly of the Mars Science Laboratory rover. Anaerobic bacteria were cultured on several media, and DNA was extracted from suitable anaerobic enrichments and examined with conventional 16S rRNA gene clone library, as well as high-density phylogenetic 16S rRNA gene microarray (PhyloChip) technologies. The culture-dependent analyses predominantly showed the presence of clostridial and propionibacterial strains. The 16S rRNA gene sequences retrieved from clone libraries revealed distinct microbial populations associated with each clean-room facility, clustered exclusively within gram-positive organisms. PhyloChip analysis detected a greater microbial diversity, spanning many phyla of bacteria, and provided a deeper insight into the microbial community structure of the clean-room facilities. This study presents an integrated approach for assessing the anaerobic microbial population within clean-room facilities, using both molecular and cultivation-based analyses. The results reveal that highly diverse anaerobic bacterial populations persist in the clean rooms even after the imposition of rigorous maintenance programs and will pose a challenge to planetary protection implementation activities.

Fate and biodegradability of sulfonated aromatic amines

Ten sulfonated aromatic amines were tested for their aerobic and anaerobic biodegradability and toxicity potential in a variety of environmental inocula. Of all the compounds tested, only two aminobenzenesulfonic acid (ABS) isomers, 2- and 4-ABS, were degraded. The observed degradation occurred only under aerobic conditions with inocula sources that were historically polluted with sulfonated aromatic amines. Bioreactor experiments, with non-sterile synthetic wastewater, confirmed the results from the aerobic batch degradation experiments. Both ABS isomers were degraded in long-term continuous experiment by a bioaugmented enrichment culture. The maximum degradation rate in the aerobic bioreactor was 1.6-1.8 g 1(-1) d(-1) for 2-ABS and a somewhat lower value for 4-ABS at hydraulic retention times (HRT) of 2.8-3.3 h. Evidence for extensive mineralization of 2- and 4-ABS was based on oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide production during the batch experiments and the high levels of chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal in the bioreactor. Furthermore, mineralization of the sulfonate group was demonstrated by high recovery of sulfate. The sulfonated aromatic amines did not show any toxic effects on the aerobic and anaerobic bacterial populations tested. The poor biodegradability of sulfonated aromatic amines indicated under the laboratory conditions of this study suggests that these compounds may not be adequately removed during biological wastewater treatment.

Occurrence and molecular characterization of cultivable mesophilic and thermophilic obligate anaerobic bacteria isolated from paper mills

The aim of this work was to characterize the cultivable obligate anaerobic bacterial population in paper mill environments. A total of 177 anaerobically grown bacterial isolates were screened for aerotolerance, from which 67 obligate anaerobes were characterized by automated ribotyping and 41 were further identified by partial 16S rDNA sequencing. The mesophilic isolates indicated 11 different taxa (species) within the genus Clostridium and the thermophilic isolates four taxa within the genus Thermoanaerobacterium and one within Thermoanaerobacter (both formerly Clostridium). The most widespread mesophilic bacterium was closely related to C. magnum and occurred in three of four mills. One mill was contaminated with a novel mesophilic bacterium most closely related to C. thiosulfatireducens. The most common thermophile was T. thermosaccharolyticum, occurring in all four mills. The genetic relationships of the mill isolates to described species indicated that most of them are potential members of new species. On the basis of identical ribotypes clay could be identified to be the contamination source of thermophilic bacteria. Automated ribotyping can be a useful tool for the identification of clostridia as soon as comprehensive identification libraries are available.

Effect of nisin on two cultures of rumen ciliates.

The effect of nisin (in the form of Nisaplin) was determined using two species of rumen ciliate protozoa in vitro, on their co-culture bacterial population, and volatile fatty acid concentration. Nisaplin did not affect the in vitro growth of Entodinium caudatum at concentrations of 50-400 mg/L during short-term treatment (5 d). Long-term application (30 d) of Nisaplin (100 mg/L) significantly decreased growth of the Epidinium ecaudatum forma caudatum et ecaudatum but not growth of E. caudatum. Nisaplin moderately supported the growth of E. caudatum after omission of wheat gluten (source of amino acids for protozoan growth). An inhibition of Gram-positive facultative anaerobic bacterial population in the protozoan cultures (lactobacilli, enterococci, staphylococci and amylolytic streptococci) was observed during long-term Nisaplin treatment. The concentration of volatile fatty acids significantly increased during the long-term Nisaplin treatment of both cultures. The propionate concentration in the mixture of volatile fatty acids was nearly twice higher on the account of the decreased concentration (from 74 to 63%) of acetate.

The use of a model ileum to investigate the effects of novel and existing antimicrobials on indigenous porcine gastrointestinal microflora: using vancomycin as an example

The modification of an existing in vitro model of the porcine ileum is described, together with its initial validation in terms of specific bacterial content, resistance to transient pathogen colonisation and test antimicrobial exposure. With the primary aim of producing a standardised test system requiring a low animal cost, a single-stage continuous culture fermenter inoculated with porcine faecal material was shown to be capable of establishing and maintaining a microflora comparable to that of the porcine ileum. Such comparison was based upon total aerobic and anaerobic bacterial population magnitude, total Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium and Enterococcus spp., Escherichia coli and lactic acid bacteria numbers and E. coli strain complexity. The robustness of the model was demonstrated through resistance to transient pathogen ( Salmonella poona) exposure. Test glycopeptide exposure (vancomycin) served both to verify the simulated microflora response as comparable with that reported elsewhere in vivo and to demonstrate the model’s value in the assessment of dietary antimicrobial activity. The trends observed under antibiotic exposure illustrate the influence of vancomycin treatment on the enteric commensal microflora, inhibiting potentially probiotic bacteria that may be vital to the competitive exclusion of the gut and favouring the selection of opportunistic pathogens. Despite the limitations of such a model system, the in vitro porcine ileum produced highly repeatable data at a low cost, with complete control and containment. Given a comparable seeding inoculum the model proved capable of yielding data reproducible over time, describing the test antibiotics influence on the ileal microflora in a form suitable for comparison elsewhere.

Phylogeny of numerically abundant culturable anaerobic bacteria associated with degradation of rice plant residue in Japanese paddy field soil

Culturable anaerobic bacterial populations on rice plant residue (straw and stubble with roots) in paddy field soil were found on the order of 10(9) CFU (colony-forming units) (g dry weight of plant residue)(-1), and the percentages of spores were usually less than 1% of the total anaerobes. Anaerobic bacteria were isolated from each sample by picking up colonies on the roll tube agar used for the enumeration. The phylogenetic analysis of 47 isolates based on 16S rRNA gene sequences revealed that the composition of dominant culturable anaerobic bacteria on rice plant residue was rather simple. The most dominant group was closely related to the Cellulomonas species in the Actinobacteria phylum and accounted for more than 60% of the isolates for most of the samples. The second major group was also affiliated with the Actinobacteria phylum and tentatively named the 'propionate-producing Actinobacteria group' because the strains in the group commonly produced propionate. Strains in the third group, the 'Prevotella-like group', were Gram-negative, strictly anaerobic rods and placed in the Bacteroides phylum with 16S rRNA gene similarities of 86-92% to the closest relatives. Some other strains belonging to Betaproteobacteria and the clostridial group were also isolated. Most of the strains affiliated to the clostridial group were isolated from the heat-treated samples. Some phenotypic characteristics of representative strains of each group are also described.

Phylogeny of numerically abundant culturable anaerobic bacteria associated with degradation of rice plant residue in Japanese paddy field soil

Culturable anaerobic bacterial populations on rice plant residue (straw and stubble with roots) in paddy field soil were found on the order of 10 9 CFU (colony-forming units) (g dry weight of plant residue) −1, and the percentages of spores were usually less than 1% of the total anaerobes. Anaerobic bacteria were isolated from each sample by picking up colonies on the roll tube agar used for the enumeration. The phylogenetic analysis of 47 isolates based on 16S rRNA gene sequences revealed that the composition of dominant culturable anaerobic bacteria on rice plant residue was rather simple. The most dominant group was closely related to the Cellulomonas species in the Actinobacteria phylum and accounted for more than 60% of the isolates for most of the samples. The second major group was also affiliated with the Actinobacteria phylum and tentatively named the ‘propionate-producing Actinobacteria group’ because the strains in the group commonly produced propionate. Strains in the third group, the ‘ Prevotella-like group’, were Gram-negative, strictly anaerobic rods and placed in the Bacteroides phylum with 16S rRNA gene similarities of 86–92% to the closest relatives. Some other strains belonging to Betaproteobacteria and the clostridial group were also isolated. Most of the strains affiliated to the clostridial group were isolated from the heat-treated samples. Some phenotypic characteristics of representative strains of each group are also described.

Anaerobic activities of bacteria and fungi in moderately acidic conifer and deciduous leaf litter

Abstract The litter layer of forest soils harbors high amounts of labile organic matter, and anaerobic decomposition processes can be initiated when oxygen is consumed more rapidly than it is supplied by diffusion. In this study, two adjacent moderately acidic forest sites, a spruce and a beech-oak forest, were selected to compare the anaerobic bacterial and fungal activities and populations of conifer and deciduous leaf litter. Most probable number (MPN) estimates of general heterotrophic aerobes and anaerobes from conifer litter equaled those from deciduous leaf litter. H(2), ethanol, formate, and lactate were initially produced with similar rates in both anoxic conifer and deciduous leaf litter microcosms. These products were rapidly consumed in deciduous leaf but not in conifer litter microcosms. Supplemental ethanol and H(2) were consumed only by deciduous leaf litter and yielded additional amounts of acetate in stoichiometries indicative of ethanol- or H(2)-dependent acetogenesis. The negligible turnover of primary fermentation products in conifer litter might be due to the low numbers of acetogens and secondary fermenters present in conifer litter compared to deciduous leaf litter. Fungi capable of anaerobic growth made up only 0.01-0.1% of the total anaerobic microorganisms cultured from conifer and deciduous leaf litter, respectively. Metabolic product profiles obtained from the highest anoxic, growth-positive MPN dilutions supplemented with antibacterial agents indicated that the dominant population of fungi, apparently mainly yeast-like cells, produced H(2), ethanol, acetate, and lactate both in conifer and deciduous leaf litter. Thus, despite acidic conditions, bacteria appear to dominate in the decomposition of carbon in anoxic microsites of both conifer and deciduous leaf litter.

Anaerobic activities of bacteria and fungi in moderately acidic conifer and deciduous leaf litter

The litter layer of forest soils harbors high amounts of labile organic matter, and anaerobic decomposition processes can be initiated when oxygen is consumed more rapidly than it is supplied by diffusion. In this study, two adjacent moderately acidic forest sites, a spruce and a beech–oak forest, were selected to compare the anaerobic bacterial and fungal activities and populations of conifer and deciduous leaf litter. Most probable number (MPN) estimates of general heterotrophic aerobes and anaerobes from conifer litter equaled those from deciduous leaf litter. H 2, ethanol, formate, and lactate were initially produced with similar rates in both anoxic conifer and deciduous leaf litter microcosms. These products were rapidly consumed in deciduous leaf but not in conifer litter microcosms. Supplemental ethanol and H 2 were consumed only by deciduous leaf litter and yielded additional amounts of acetate in stoichiometries indicative of ethanol- or H 2-dependent acetogenesis. The negligible turnover of primary fermentation products in conifer litter might be due to the low numbers of acetogens and secondary fermenters present in conifer litter compared to deciduous leaf litter. Fungi capable of anaerobic growth made up only 0.01–0.1% of the total anaerobic microorganisms cultured from conifer and deciduous leaf litter, respectively. Metabolic product profiles obtained from the highest anoxic, growth-positive MPN dilutions supplemented with antibacterial agents indicated that the dominant population of fungi, apparently mainly yeast-like cells, produced H 2, ethanol, acetate, and lactate both in conifer and deciduous leaf litter. Thus, despite acidic conditions, bacteria appear to dominate in the decomposition of carbon in anoxic microsites of both conifer and deciduous leaf litter.