Anaemic Goats Research Articles

94 Smartphone integration in anemia detection for small ruminants with Convolutional Neural Networks

Abstract Anemia, often caused by internal parasites like Haemonchus contortus, presents significant health and productivity challenges for small ruminants. The primary goal of this study was to accurately distinguish between healthy and anemic goats using an image classification system focused on eye conjunctiva images. Over 5,000 eye conjunctiva images from 75 goats were collected at Fort Valley State University farms over a 3-mo period using smartphone cameras. These images were randomly divided into training (70%) and testing (30%) datasets, with each group containing five subfolders corresponding to FAMACHA scores of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. A Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) algorithm was utilized for image analysis, incorporating data augmentation techniques such as Resize, RandomHorizontalFlip, RandomVerticalFlip, and RandomRotation. The CNN model was built on the Google Colaboratory platform using CUDA 11.2 and the PyTorch machine learning framework, incorporating three ConvNet layers. The model training used the Adam Optimizer with a slower learning rate of 0.001 and a weight decay of 0.0001 to prevent exploding gradient issues, alongside ReLU and the cross-entropy loss function over 1000 epochs. Results demonstrate that the CNN model was highly effective in classifying eye conjunctiva images of goats to detect anemia based on FAMACHA scores.

PSXIII-28 Advancing Anemia Detection in Small Ruminants with Convolutional Neural Networks and Smartphone Integration

Abstract Anemia, often caused by internal parasites like Haemonchus contortus, presents significant health and productivity challenges for small ruminants. The primary goal of this study was to accurately distinguish between healthy and anemic goats using an image classification system focused on eye conjunctiva images. In the initial phase, 1,200 eye conjunctiva images from 75 goats were collected at Fort Valley State University farms over a two-week period using smartphone cameras. These images were randomly divided into training (70%) and testing (30%) datasets, with each group containing three subfolders corresponding to FAMACHA scores of 1, 2, and 3. The validation folder included unique images not found in the other folders. A Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) algorithm was utilized for image analysis, incorporating data augmentation techniques such as Resize, RandomHorizontalFlip, RandomVerticalFlip, and RandomRotation. The CNN model was built on the Google Colaboratory platform using CUDA 11.2 and the PyTorch machine learning framework, incorporating three ConvNet layers. The model training used the Adam Optimizer with a slower learning rate of 0.001 and a weight decay of 0.0001 to prevent exploding gradient issues, alongside ReLU and the cross-entropy loss function over 1000 epochs. Results demonstrate that the Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) model was highly effective in classifying eye conjunctiva images of goats to detect anemia based on FAMACHA scores. The overall precision of 93.9% indicates that the model was accurate in identifying true positive cases. The recall accuracy of 92.1% suggests that the model was successful in capturing most of the true anemic cases from the entire dataset, minimizing the number of false negatives. When examining the precision for each FAMACHA score, the CNN model displayed excellent performance. With a precision of 100% for FAMACHA score 1, the model perfectly identified healthy goats without any false positives. For score 2, the model achieved a precision of 95%, indicating a high level of accuracy in detecting goats with mild anemia. Lastly, for FAMACHA score 3, the precision of the model was 92.9%, demonstrating its effectiveness in identifying goats with more severe anemia. These results show that smartphone-derived images can be a powerful tool in creating an image classification model for monitoring animal health, particularly in detecting anemia in small ruminants. Utilizing smartphone cameras makes the process more accessible, cost-effective, and user-friendly for farmers and veterinary professionals. Despite the impressive performance of the CNN model, the research suggests that there is still room for improvement. By increasing the size of the training dataset, Refining the model development process, such as adjusting the architecture, hyperparameters, or data augmentation techniques, could also contribute to enhanced performance. These improvements would further increase the accuracy and reliability of the model in identifying anemic goats, ultimately leading to better animal health management.

Evaluation of Red Cell Distribution Width (RDW) in Anemic Goats

Background: Red cell distribution width (RDW) measures the degree of anisocytosis in an erythrocyte population and was expressed as the coefficient of variation of the erythrocyte size distribution data. In recent studies, RDW has been evolved as a new predictive marker and as an independent risk factor in assessing the severity and progression of disease conditions. The data regarding RDW in goats was found lacking particularly in conditions like anemia. Methods: The study was conducted at Veterinary Clinical Complex, VCRI Orathanadu. The EDTA blood samples from suspected cases were collected and analyzed by Veterinary specific automated hematology analyzer. During the study goats with hemoglobin values lesser than and or equal to 8.0 g/dl were selected to evaluate the RDW alterations in them. Result: The Red cell distribution width was found elevated (36.94±0.29%) in anemic goats when compared to the healthy reference. The data of the Red cell distribution width in goats was recorded and statistically analysed.

Effects of Plasma transfusion on various hematological and biochemical parameters in goats

This study investigated the clinical and hematological responses of plasma transfusion and hematinic administration in severely anemic goats. The blood profile of the recipient goats were assessed for hematological: Total Erythrocyte Count (TEC), Total Leukocyte Count (TLC), Hemoglobin (Hb), Packed Cell Volume (PCV), Neutrophil, Eosinophil, Lymphocyte, Monocyte, and Electrolytes and Biochemical parameters: Alanine Transaminase (ALT), Aspartate Transaminase (AST), Creatinine and Total Protein (TP) before and after (1st, 7th, 14th, 21th, 28th days) treatment with plasma transfusion or hematinic administration. In plasma transfusion group (Group A), TEC, PCV, Hb, ALT, AST and TP were increased significantly (p < 0.01) at 1st, 7th, 14th, 21th, 28th days of post-transfusion in comparison to pre-transfusion values. In the hematinic group (Group B), two patients died treated with hematinic. However, no significant changes (p > 0.05) in clinical parameters, electrolytes (K+, Na+ and Cl−) levels and creatinine values were observed in recipient goats after plasma transfusion and hematinic administration. After 28 days of treatment, all patients of plasma transfusion group (100%) and three in hematinic treatment group (60%) were recovered successfully. The plasma transfusion was found superior to hematinic administration to upgrade the hematological and biochemical parameters in anemic goats. It did not produce any adverse reaction in the recipient goats. Plasma transfusion could be an effective tool for the clinical management of anemic goats.

Efficacy of Moringa oleifera leaves powder as a haematinic preparation in helminth infected anaemic goats

Efficacy of Moringa oleifera leaves powder as a haematinic preparation in helminth infected anaemic goats

Use of FAMACHA to Detect Anaemia and Control of Gastrointestinal Parasite in Goats of A and N Islands, India

Background: FAffaMAlanCHArt (FAMACHA) is a technique for treating the animals infested with gastrointestinal parasites by using clinical anaemia as the determinant. The test is based on the assessment of colour variation of the conjunctival mucous membrane. Methods: In the present study FAMACHA has been standardized and used to correlate the anaemic status of goats with faecal egg count (gastro intestinal parasites) and blood profile. On the basis of FAMACHA score and faecal egg count, the goats were treated with benzimidazole compound and macrocyclic lactone. Result: The result indicated significant (P less than 0.05) reduction in the faecal egg count of Haemonchus spp from 1200±155.76 to 525±75, Strongyloides spp from 469.57±77.37 to 78.26±33.83 and Eimeria spp from 900±240.05 to 195.65±55.34 respectively. FAMACHA score of anaemic goats improved from 4.08±0.11 to 3.2±0.13. Mean haemoglobin (g/dl), packed cell volume (PCV), red blood cell (RBC) and white blood cell (WBC) improved from 8.33 to 8.99, 22.66 to 24.86, 13.73 to 14.76 and 18029 to 19894, respectively which indicated clinical improvement. Highly significant (P less than 0.01) correlation was observed between the FAMACHA score and the haemoglobin level. It could be concluded that FAMACHA is a very handy tool to detect anaemic status of the animals and correlate with gastrointestinal parasitic load.

Evaluation of Clinical Signs, Hematological and Biochemical Parameters after Blood Transfusion from Sheep to Goat

Blood transfusion is needed for the treatment of severe anemia. The purpose of this study was to detect clinical reactions, hematological and biochemical alterations after a blood transfusion from sheep to goat. Four Iranian mixed breed male sheep and goats were used in this study. Fifteen milliliters per kilogram of whole blood was taken from the sheep. Blood transfusion to goats was performed after 24 hours. Blood samples were taken from goats at times 0 (10 min before transfusion), 10 min, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72, 96, and 192 hours after blood transfusion. No reactions such as coughing, dyspnea, muscle tremors, salivation, tearing, fever, and ruminal bloating during and after blood transfusion were seen. The respiratory rate significantly increased, 3, 6, and 12 hours after blood transfusion (p ˂ 0.05). Hematocrit was significantly reduced 3 hours after blood transfusion (p ˂ 0.05). Serum creatinine levels were increased significantly 10 minutes and 3 hours after blood transfusion (p ˂ 0.05). Blood urea serum was significantly increased 6 and 12 hours after blood transfusion (p ˂ 0.05). Serum calcium levels were increased significantly 72 and 96 hours after blood transfusion (p ˂ 0.05). Serum magnesium levels were significantly increased 72 and 96 hours after blood transfusion (p ˂ 0.05). In conclusion, temporary and transient changes observed in this study were safe and were not life-threatening for the goats, and the sheep blood can be used in anemic goats for one time.

Prevalence of etiological agents in anaemic goats in cauvery delta region of Tamil Nadu

Prevalence of etiological agents in anaemic goats in cauvery delta region of Tamil Nadu

Mycoplasma ovis infection in goat farms from northeastern Brazil.

Although Mycoplasma ovis (formerly Eperythrozoon ovis) has been described in small ruminants worldwide, data on M. ovis in goats remain scarce. Accordingly, the aims of the present study were to i) determine the prevalence of hemoplasmas in goats, ii) identify the tick species parasitizing the animals, and iii) determine factors associated with infection in five dairy and three beef goat farms from the Paraíba State, northeastern Brazil. Blood samples were obtained from 402 goats. Samples were screened for hemoplasmas using a pan-hemoplasma PCR. The positive samples were confirmed by sequencing. An epidemiological questionnaire was given to each farm owner addressing age, gender, and presence of ticks. A total of 158/402 (39.3%) goats were positive for M. ovis by PCR. Sequencing of PCR positive samples has shown ≥99% identity with multiple M. ovis 16S rDNA sequences deposited in GenBank, including M. ovis isolates from humans. Dairy (OR=2.15; 95% CI: 1.40-3.32%; P=0.0004) and anemic goats (OR=2.33; 95% CI: 1.51-3.71%; P=0.0001) were more likely to be infected than beef and non-anemic animals, respectively. Amblyomma parvum (49/52, 94.23%) and Rhipicephalus microplus (3/52, 5.77%) were the tick species found parasitizing the animals, with no significant association between the presence of ticks and infection by M. ovis (P=0.1164). This is the first reportedly molecular detection of M. ovis infection in goats from South America. In conclusion, M. ovis is highly prevalent in goats from northeastern Brazil, mainly in dairy animals.

Reliability of FAMACHA© chart for the evaluation of anaemia in goats in and around Maiduguri

The reliability of FAMACHA © chart for identifying anaemic goats was compared with Packed Cell Volume (PCV). The colour of the lower eyelids was graded with FAMACHA © chart based on FAMACHA © scores (FS) of 1-5. The animals were scored from severely anaemic (white or FS 5) through moderately anaemic (pink or FS 3) to non-anaemic (red or FS 1). The prevalence of anaemia in the animals was also determined. This study was done to control death of animals from anaemia by the use of FAMACHA © chart, a method which does not need laboratory analysis and can be used by the illiterate with minimal training. A total of 415 goats were used for the study. Blood samples were collected for determination of PCV. Data for both FS and PCV were evaluated using two separate cut off points for each sample (values of FS 4 and 5 or FS 5 and PCV values of ≤ 19% or ≤ 15 %), to determine anaemic animals. The FAMACHA © Score of the evaluated goats was normally distributed, with FS 3 occurring most frequently (34.5%), whilst, the least was FS 1 (5.3%). There was a high negative correlation between FS and PCV (r = -0.69, P < 0.02). The sensitivity of FS was high (64%) when FS 5 and PCV ≤ 19%, were used to determine anaemia, but when FS 4&5 and PCV ≤ 15% were used, the sensitivity decreased to 22%. Thus, it was concluded that FAMACHA © scores of 5 gave the most reliable indicator of anaemia in goats, coinciding with the PCV values of ≤ 19%. A high Likelihood Ratio of 22 was recorded in this study. Indicating that FS will be positive for anaemia 22 times in anaemic animals than in non anaemic animals. Keywords: Anaemia, FAMACHA © chart, Goat, Reliability, Sensitivity

Determination of some biochemical parameters in clinically healthy and anemic goats

The study was conducted on 130 healthy and 72 affected with iron deficiency anemia (IDA) by used local breed goats to determine serum iron, total iron binding capacity (TIBC), unbound iron binding capacity (UIBC), copper concentration and transferrin saturation (TS%). The 130 normal goats (40 males and 90 females). while 72 diagnosed iron deficient anemic goats (18males and 54females), both groups aged 6 months- 4 years in Najaf governorate. Blood samples were collected from the jugular veins into plain tubes during October 2013 till February2014, and the separated sera were directly used for chemical investigation. Result showed in normal and iron deficient anemic goats; Serum iron concentration was 7-17.9 and 11.8±0.22, 1.2-6.9 and 4.3±0.17 respectively, TIBC 67.5-107.3 and 89.7±0.69, 67.3-265 and 112.4±4.35 respectively ,UIBC 59.1-94.9 and 78±0.69, 60.9-260 and 108.1±4.36 respectively, TS% 7.4-20 and 13.1±0.25, 0.90-10.1 and 4.1±0.23 respectively and serum copper 1.1-4.6 and 2.4±0.05, 0.7-3.0 and 1.7±0.06 respectively.However, There were a significant (P&lt;0.05) decrease in serum iron, TS% and copper, while there was a significant increase (P&lt;0.05) in serum TIBC and UIBC of IDA goats as compared with normal control. Also, a significant differences(P&lt;0.05) between males and females, as well as, in subgroups of normal and anemic goats have been recorded . In conclusion the present data recorded reference ranges of some biochemical parameters in local breed goats with a significant differences between normal, anemic ,males and females, and in different physiologic status .

Evaluation of anaemia in Nigerian goats using FAMACHA© eye colour chart: a preliminary study

A preliminary study was carried out on the possibility of using the FAMACHA eye colour chart to predict the level of anaemia in 280 Nigerian goats of varied ages slaughtered at the Nsukka abattoir, in Enugu State, Nigeria. Three indices of anaemia, namely packed cell volume (PCV), red blood cell (RBC) counts and haemoglobin (Hb) concentrations were compared with the colour of the ocular membranes of the goats. The colours of the ocular conjunctiva of all animals were scored on a 1–5 scale using the FAMACHA© card, and blood samples were collected from each animal for determination of PCV, RBC counts and Hb concentration. Correlations between eye colour scores and the duo of PCV and Hb concentrations were highly significant and negative. Haemonchus contortus was the most predominant gastrointestinal nematode parasite observed in the study with average larval recovery of 70.18 %. Age has no effect on the predictability of anaemia by the FAMACHA© technique. It was concluded that the FAMACHA method can be used by farmers in Nigeria to identify anaemic goats particularly in conditions of haemonchosis which is one of the main causes of anaemia in goats and the most predominant gastrointestinal nematode in small ruminants in the study area. It is, therefore, believed that these preliminary findings will form a basis for further work on validating the use of FAMACHA© in Nigerian goats.

Study of Some Biochemical Values Changes Associated With Morphological Anemia in Local Breed Goats

This study was conducted on local breed goats to determine the changes in biochemical parameters in anemic cases by using morphological classification, one hundred and seventyserum samples were collected randomly from goats of both sexes aged 3 months – 6 years, they were grazing on pasture from the different districts of Baghdad, Bakuba and Falluja. The total protein, albumin and fibrinogen in the normal bucks were 73 1 – 84 1 g/L, 35 3- 37 1 g/ L, 9 8- 11 1 g/ L, respectively and in the normal does were 66 1 – 77 4 g/ L, 35 6 – 37 2 g/ L and 6 – 15 g/ L, respectively, the average of these parameters differed significantly at (p&gt; 0.05) between the normal and the anemic animals. The mean level of copper in the serum of normal goats was 21.66 µmol/L and the the mean level of iron in serum was 29.24 µmol/L these averages value were declined in the anemic goats was significantas compared with apparently healthy goats.

The accuracy of the FAMACHA©-method in detecting anaemia and haemonchosis in goat flocks in Switzerland under field conditions

In this study, goats from six farms in Central Switzerland were examined for the evaluation of the FAMACHA©-method under middle European conditions. Individual faecal egg counts were determined at a 4-week interval for a period of 6 months and the gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) genera were differentiated using larval culture. Simultaneously, the goats were bled for packed cell volume (PCV) determination and scored for anaemia of the conjunctiva according to the FAMACHA©-method. The three methods used for evaluating haemonchosis, namely FEC, PCV and FAMACHA©-score, were compared to test the FAMACHA©-method for its accuracy and efficacy in detecting haemonchosis in Switzerland. PCV and FAMACHA©-score correlated significantly during the entire period of 6 months, whereas PCV and FEC correlated significantly in four study months. The FAMACHA©-score and FEC correlated significantly in June only. PCV served as the gold standard for evaluating the accuracy of FAMACHA©-method in detecting anaemic goats. The sensitivity of FAMACHA© in detecting anaemic goats was 93%, using the anaemia criteria cut-offs FAMACHA©-categories ≥3 and PCV <22%. The applicability of the method for detecting goats which needed treatment was tested with FEC >300 epg and >600 epg as cut-off values for treatment. The sensitivity of the method for detecting goats which needed a treatment was 76%, with regard to FEC of Haemonchus contortus (treatment cut-offs: FAMACHA© ≥3 and FEC >300 epg). The percentage of false negatives (FEC-Hc-portion) was less than 11%. In addition, the use of FAMACHA© categories ≥3, as a treatment indicator, revealed that 64% of the animals were recommended for treatment. These results indicate the suitability of FAMACHA© as an additional part of an integrated anthelmintic control of goat flocks in Switzerland.

Benefits of urea-molasses block supplementation and symptomatic and tactical anthelmintic treatments of communally grazed indigenous goats in the Bulwer area, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa

This study was carried out with the cooperation of farmers owning communally grazed indigenous goats in southwestern KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa, where farmers had identified poor reproductive performance in their herds as one of their major problems. The aim was to quantify the effects of 3 interventions and the interaction between these interventions on goat productivity and gastrointestinal nematode infection. The interventions were: urea-molasses block supplementation during the dry winter seasons of 2004 and 2005, tactical anthelmintic treatment with ivermectin (400 microg/kg) during the wet summer period (on 3 January 2005) and symptomatic treatment with ivermectin (400 microg/kg) of all goats judged anaemic throughout the entire study period. The FAMACHA system was used as a gauge of anaemia. It was noted that goats considered anaemic tended to remain so throughout the study period. The tactical anthelmintic treatment was effective as it markedly reduced (P = 0.066) the summer peak in faecal egg counts and is therefore recommended. By contrast, while the urea-molasses block supplementation appeared to reduce the faecal egg counts immediately following the 2004 supplementation (P < 0.05), this did not hold true in 2005. Interestingly, in the tactically treated anaemic goats, the improvement in the number of kids suckled per doe year-on-year tended to be greater than in the non-anaemic goats. It is considered that the routine symptomatic treatment of anaemic goats may have been a key factor. More detailed investigations into the routine symptomatic treatment of anaemic goats are therefore recommended.

Accuracy of an anaemia scoring chart applied on goats in sub-humid Kenya and its potential for control of Haemonchus contortus infections

We tested the practical application of an anaemia scoring chart (the FAMACHA © chart) as a method for controlling Haemonchus contortus in goats kept under smallholder conditions in a sub-humid area of Central Kenya. The objectives were: (1) to test the accuracy of the FAMACHA © chart in identifying anaemic goats (PCV ≤ 18); (2) to quantify the proportion of goats left untreated at farm level when using the chart. On each of two farms, Small East African goats of various ages were allocated to two treatment groups; a FAMACHA © group (F1 ( n = 34) and F2 ( n = 31) on farms 1 and 2, respectively) and a control group (C1 ( n = 34) and C2 ( n = 30)). In F1 and F2 goats with a FAMACHA © score of 3, 4 or 5 were treated with anthelmintic after scoring. In C1 and C2 goats were treated every 4 weeks from 15 February to 20 July. Every 2 weeks all goats were scored with the FAMACHA © chart and weighed. Furthermore, faecal samples were collected for faecal egg counts (FEC) and blood samples were collected for packed cell volume (PCV) determination. H. contortus was found to be the predominant nematode on both farms. The mean FECs were higher on farm 1 compared to farm 2, while in contrast the mean PCV levels were lowest on farm 2. The latter was most likely due to the presence of Fasciola spp., flea and tick infections on farm 2. The accuracy of the chart was evaluated by using PCV as the gold standard for anaemia (PCV ≤ 18%). The mean percentage of false-negative scorings per sampling was 0.7% on farm 1 and 1.6% on farm 2, while the mean percentage of false-positive scorings was 9.7% and 21.4%, respectively. It is most likely that the accuracy of the chart was negatively affected by the concurrent parasite infections on farm 2. The mean proportion of untreated goats per sampling was 89% and 77% on farm 1 and farm 2. It was concluded that the FAMACHA © chart can be a valuable tool for decision-making in control of H. contortus in goats kept under smallholder conditions, without morbidity or mortality unacceptable to the farmer. The application may further reduce the risk of development of anthelmintic resistance by increasing refugia. However, caution should be taken under conditions where other anaemia-causing parasites are present (e.g. Fasciola spp. and ecto-parasites), since this possibly decreases the accuracy of the FAMACHA © chart.

Erythrocyte glutathione concentrations in Nigerian Sahel goats

The erythrocyte glutathione (GSH) concentrations of 210 Nigerian Sahel goats were 2.4–175.2 (46.5±36.4) mg/100 ml RBC or 0.1–7.3 (1.9±1.4) mg/gHb. The frequency distribution of the blood and erythrocyte GSH values were positively skewed, but the packed cell volume (PCV) and haemoglobin (Hb) concentrations were normally distributed. The erythrocyte GSH values in mg/100 ml RBC and mg/gHb were strongly correlated. Majority of the goat population (74.8%) had low or `deficient' erythrocyte GSH concentrations (≤60 mg/100 ml RBC). Sixteen animals with very low erythrocyte GSH values of 2.4–9.8 (6.9±2.9) mg/100 ml RBC were not anaemic and the anaemic goats with PCV of 17.0±0.9% had GSH concentrations of 3.5–97.5 (45.0±42.8) mg/100 ml RBC. The erythrocyte GSH values were not correlated with PCV or Hb, and anaemia. The biochemical basis for the low erythrocyte GSH concentrations is yet to be determined.

Gas Exchange Properties of Goat Hemoglobins A and C

Hypoxic or anemic goats with the A hemoglobin genotype switch to the production of hemoglobin C, resulting in a reduced blood oxygen affinity. However, the physiologic consequences of this switch are not clear. We therefore studied the gas exchange properties of the two hemoglobin types. We found that purified hemoglobins A and C have very similar oxygen affinities and H+ Bohr effects, but in the presence of CO2, the affinity of hemoglobin C is substantially less than that of hemoglobin A. That this is not a nonspecific ionic effect is suggested by identical effects of NaCl on O2 binding to the two proteins and by a 2-fold higher capacity of hemoglobin C to bind CO2. The data can be explained by a class of CO2 binding sites in the beta C chain whose affinity is much higher than that of either of the primary sites or of those in Hb A. Our results suggest that in hemoglobin C-containing red cells CO2 acts as a potent allosteric effector, analogous to the role played by 2,3-diphosphoglycerate in human red blood cells. Goat hemoglobin C may have advantages over hemoglobins A or B in O2 transport under hypoxic conditions or in anemia.

Fusiform erythrocytes resembling sickle cells in angora goats: observations on osmotic and mechanical fragilities and reversal of cell shape during anaemia

Osmotic and mechanical fragilities of erythrocytes were determined for seven goats having 3.4-71 per cent fusiform erythrocytes. The osmotic fragility was related to the erythrocyte shape in that the osmotic resistance was considerably higher for bloods containing more than 26 per cent fusiform erythrocytes. A decrease in the proportion of fusiform erythrocytes in the same goats was related to an increase in the osmotic fragility. Anaemia was induced in two goats by removal of 200-400 ml of blood at three or four day intervals for eight weeks. Red cell values decreased by 28-43 per cent within three weeks, but further bleeding produced either no or less (0-21 per cent) reductions in these values. Slight reticulocytosis was seen during the anaemic phase and there was a concomitant increase in the mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular haemoglobin values. Reticulocytosis diminished before the start of recovery from anaemia and disappeared during the recovery phase. The most significant finding was the change in the erythrocyte morphology during production of and recovery from anaemia. The development of anaemia was associated with a gradual reduction in the proportion of fusiform erythrocytes or discoid cells and simultaneous increase in the proportion of erythrocytes exhibiting distinct poikilocytosis. Recovery from the anaemia was rapid (within five weeks), but reversal of the erythrocyte shape took several months. Severe blood loss anaemia in the goat is known to induce synthesis of haemoglobin C, and in these anaemic goats formation of a new haemoglobin, most likely haemoglobin C, was demonstrated by electrophoretic and column chromatographic analyses. It was concluded that the formation of haemoglobin C was responsible for the morphological changes in the erythrocytes.

Die O2-Diffusionskapazität der Lunge wacher Ziegen vor und während chronischer Anämie

The O2 diffusion capacity of the lungs was studied in unanesthetised goats before and during chronic anemia (Hematocrit 50% of normal). On the average, the diffusion capacity with a cardiac output of 5 l/min was 30% lower in anemic goats than in normal goats.