Amritsar City Research Articles

Air pollution tolerance and metal accumulation potential of some plant species growing in educational institutions of Amritsar, India.

Poor air quality in urban areas increases the exposure of individuals to air pollutants. Hence, it becomes mandatory to grow such plant species that have more potential to tolerate air pollution and can aid in its mitigation. Air pollution tolerance index (APTI) and anticipated performance index (API) are two indices that help in scientific evaluation of plant species before recommending them for plantation. In this study, six plant species from three educational institutions of Amritsar city were screened for their tolerance and performance against air pollution as well as for their capability to act as accumulators of nine metals viz., aluminium (Al), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn). On the basis of APTI, Cassia fistula (C. fistula) was categorized as a tolerant species while Alstonia scholaris (A. scholaris), Cascabela thevetia (C. thevetia), Monoon longifolium (M. longifolium), Pongamia pinnata (P. pinnata) and Syzygium cumini (S. cumini) were categorized as intermediately tolerant plant species. API results suggested that A. scholaris, C. fistula, M. longifolium, P. pinnata and S. cumini should be planted for air pollution mitigation. Geo-accumulation Index (Igeo) results showed that soil samples were moderately contaminated with three (Pb, Cu and Zn) metals. Bioaccumulation factor (BAF), for all metals among six plant species, was found to be less than one implying that these plants were absorbers of metals. Metal Accumulation Index (MAI) indicated that C. thevetia, C. fistula and P. pinnata exhibited relatively higher potential for metal accumulation.

APPRAISAL OF ROLE OF PUBLIC SECTOR AS AFFORDABLE HOUSING PROVIDER

Housing, besides being a very basic requirement for the urban settlers, also holds the key to accelerate the pace of development. Investments in housing construction industry have a multiplier effect on income and employment has forward and backward linkages to about 280 associated industries. The overall employment generation in the economy due to additional investment in housing construction is 8 times the direct employment. So, investment in housing is an effective instrument in the eradication of poverty in the sense that it helps growth in the productivity of the poor, and supports growth of economy, which is otherwise not achieved through subsides and in turn helps in safeguarding the future of our cities by making them slum free and ensuring planned future development. This paper aims at discussing some of the important issues relating to affordable housing that would lead to sustainable urban development in India, with special reference to Amritsar city. It deals with the housing shortage in affordable housing segment and further increase in shortage of such housing and the increasing gap between supply and demand of affordable housing with special reference to Amritsar.

Mediating Role of Social Support and Family Functioning on Quality of Life of Family Caregivers of Individuals With Alcohol Use Disorder

Background: Caring for persons with alcohol use disorder (AUD) significantly affects the quality of life (QoL) of caregivers. According to Lazarus and Folkman’s Stress and Coping Model (1984), the severity of alcohol consumption (SAC) is a major stressor for AUD caregivers. These stressors impact well-being, with QoL linked to caregivers’ coping resources, especially social support (SS) and family functioning (FF). The study aimed to investigate the mediating roles of SS and FF in the relationship between the SAC and caregivers’ QoL. Material and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in two psychiatric hospitals in Amritsar city, Punjab. We used a purposive sampling technique to collect data from 128 family caregivers aged 18 and above who were caring for male patients with AUD aged between 20 and 65. The assessment tools used were the World Health Organization Quality of Life-Brief Version (WHOQOL-BREF), Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), Family Assessment Device (FAD), and PGI Social Support Questionnaire (PGI SSQ). Results: There is a significant and partial mediation of the association between SAC and QoL by both SS and FF ( P < .001, 99% CI). Moreover, SAC (r = –0.519), FF (r = –0.603), and SS (r = 0.641) showed significant correlations with caregivers’ QoL ( P < .001). The mean scores for SAC, SS, FF, and QoL were 22.66 (11.38), 50.88 (9.45), 127.18 (43.85), and 84.13 (18.70), respectively, suggesting moderate SAC in patients, moderate to high perceived SS levels, moderate perception of family dysfunction, and moderate to high QoL among the caregivers. Conclusion: SAC detrimentally impacts caregivers’ QoL both directly and indirectly through SS and FF, with the latter serving as mediators, partially mitigating SAC’s negative impact. Clinical implications underscore the importance of tailored interventions, emphasizing the strengthening of support systems and consideration of diverse FF domains for personalized approaches. The findings contribute valuable insights for developing targeted interventions customized to the specific needs of AUD caregivers to enhance their overall QoL.

Land Surface Temperature and Thermal Comfort in the Cities of Punjab, India: Assessment Based on Remote Sensing Data

Objective: The present study aims to investigate thermal comfort in two cities in Punjab, India based on land surface temperature (LST), urban hot spots (UHS) and urban thermal field variance index (UTFVI). Method: Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS data are used to derive land surface temperature (LST), normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and enhanced built-up and bareness index (EBBI) for the year 2019. UTFVI reflects urban thermal conditions and demarcates comfort and discomfort zones in the cities. Findings: The results revealed that the mean LST (μ) of Ludhiana and Amritsar cities is 32.80 °C and 30.70 °C, respectively. LST shows a strong negative correlation with NDVI (-0.710 for Amritsar and -0.754 for Ludhiana) and a positive correlation with EBBI (0.531 for Amritsar and 0.541 for Ludhiana). About 57 and 52 per cent of geographical areas in Ludhiana and Amritsar city respectively are experiencing bad to worst ecological conditions. Novelty: (i) The study derived LST-based thermal comfort for the summer month in Amritsar and Ludhiana cities of Punjab which provide important information to urban planners and policymakers to design sustainable urban development policies to mitigate heat-related issues. (ii) Such information can be used to take steps to improve the situation in smart cities like Amritsar and Ludhiana. Keywords: Land surface temperature (LST), urban thermal field variance index (UTFVI), NDVI, Landsat 8, Punjab

An epidemiological study to assess water supply and sanitation services in slum in Amritsar city

Background: One of the foremost elements of primary health care is adequate supply of safe water and basic sanitation in the slums. Intersectoral coordination between health and water supply and sanitation department plays a major role in promoting good health of the slum-dwellers. Aims and Objectives: The aims of this study were to assess the availability of water supply and sanitation services in the slum. Materials and Methods: The cross-sectional study was conducted in a randomly selected slum in Amritsar city. Eldest adult member was interviewed and data analyzed. An interview was also held with the functionaries of department of water supply and sanitation to assess the intersectoral coordination. Results: According to Modified Kuppuswamy Scale, 49.3% of the families of the slum belonged to lower middle class. As source of water, 50.6% of the families used municipality tap water, while 63.6% families had personal toilets for defecation. Conclusion: Slums are in poor state of affairs with respect to water supply and sanitation services. Very less intersectoral coordination was seen between health department and water and sanitation department. Hence, programs of the government need to focus more on the urban slums.

Survey of the Jan Pariyojana Scheme in India and its impact on citizens during the previous decade

It is a well-known fact that Branded medicines are sold at significantly higher prices in India. Making affordable, high-quality pharmaceuticals available on the market will help everyone, but mainly the underprivileged and destitute given the country's pervasive poverty. The Indian government has always been quite concerned about this. The Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers' Department of Pharmaceutical has periodically implemented a number of regulatory and financial initiatives to achieve this goal.
 The "Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Jan Aushadhi Pariyojana" is a wonderful project started by the Indian government back in 2008 for the worthy purpose of providing high quality medications at accessible prices to all.
 The Pariyojana involved selling inexpensive generic medications through upscale retailers called "Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Jan Oshadhi Kendra" in different regions of the nation. On November 25, 2008, the first "Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Jan Oshadhi Kendra" in Punjab's Amritsar city was inaugurated.
 At first, it was planned that the "Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Jan Oshadhi Pariyojana" would be implemented during the 11th Five-Year Plan period, beginning in 2008-2009, with the goal of establishing at least each Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Jan Oshadhi Kendra in each of the firm's 630 regions, and then expanding to sub divisional levels as well as major town and village centers by 2012.
 After garnering early support, the concept was planned to be self-sustaining and not rely on government subsidies or assistance. It was to be run on the basis of "No Profit, No Loss."

Green Innovation in Hospitality Industry: A Study of Amritsar City

Green Innovation in Hospitality Industry: A Study of Amritsar City

Development and operation of immobilized cell plug flow bioreactor (PFR) for treatment of textile industry effluent and evaluation of its working efficiency.

The release of untreated/partially treated effluent and solid waste from textile dyeing industries, having un-reacted dyes, their hydrolysed products and high total dissolved solids (TDS) over the period of time had led to the deterioration of ecological niches. In an endeavour to develop a sustainable and effective alternative to conventional approaches, a plug flow reactor (PFR) having immobilized cells of consortium of three indigenous bacterial isolates was developed. The reactor was fed with effluent collected from the equalization tank of a textile processing unit located near city of Amritsar, Punjab (India). The PFR over a period of 3 months achieved 97.98 %, 82.22 %, 87.36%, 77.71% and 68.75% lowering of colour, chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD), total dissolved solids (TDS) and total suspended solids (TSS) respectively. The comparison of the phytotoxicity and genotoxicity of untreated and PFR-treated output samples using plant and animal models indicated significant lowering of respective toxicity potential. This is a first report, as per best of our knowledge, regarding direct treatment of textile industry effluent without any pre-treatment and with minimal nutritional inputs, which can be easily integrated into already existing treatment plant. The successful implementation of this system will lower the cost of coagulants/flocculants and also lowering the sludge generation.

Association of Indices of Adiposity with Lipoprotein Sub-fractions in the general Population of Amritsar City

Elevated low density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in circulation may get deposited in coronary arteries and result in atherosclerotic plaques at an early age and act as risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. More recent and detailed anthropometric indices in addition to traditional indices were assessed in this study along with lipid profile and lipoprotein indices in urban population (n = 100) of Amritsar, Punjab. n = 48 subjects comprised the case group and n = 52 subjects the control group. Study was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of Guru Nanak Dev University and individual voluntary written informed consent was provided by the study group. 46% of cases were obese and lipids and lipoprotein indices were significantly higher in obese group while low density lipoprotein cholesterol and low density lipoprotein cholesterol/high density lipoprotein cholesterol also in overweight category. Factor analysis extracted the 7 components out of 23 variables with a cummulative variance of 81.45%. Females had higher central obesity, waist hip ratio, waist height ratio and body adiposity index. Pearson’s correlation analysis revealed a positive significant association of age (r = 0.363, p = 0.027), socio-economic status (r = 0.328, p = 0.023), waist hip ratio (r = 0.298, p = 0.042), waist height ratio (r = 0.864, p = 0 000) and body mass index (r = 0.794, p = 0.000) with low density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and of gender with atherogenic index (r = 0.363, p = 0.011). Also, a significant correlation of total body fat mass with atherogenic index (r = 0.286, p = 0.048) and and body roundness index with low density lipoprotein (r = 0.345, p = 0.016) was observed. Multivariate regression analysis revealed age (B = 0.318, t = 2.380, p = 0.022) and gender (B = 0.370, t = 2.687, p = 0.010) to be significant predictors of body roundness index as well as age (B = 0.139, t = 2.307, p = 0.027) of low density lipoprotein cholesterol. The highest prediction accuracy was showed by waist circumference (AUC = 0.597) and the least by a body shape index (AUC = 0.458) as revealed by Receiver Operating Characteristics analysis. A positive association of low density lipoproteins with central and general obesity, signifies that lipid metabolism gets affected by adiposity and may further affect the lipoprotein indices which are reported to be associated with atherosclerosis and coronary heart diseases.

IMPLIMENTATION OF THE RTE ACT (2009) PROVISIONS IN CBSE SCHOOLS OF AMRITSAR CITY: AN EMPIRICAL STUDY

In the present study, an attempt has been made to critically analyse the implementation of RTE Act (2009) provisions in private CBSE schools of Amritsar city and to explore how far the various aspects enshrined in this act are possible to implement in the field of school education. The Survey method has been used in the present study. The sample consists of 50 Teachers, 200 Parents and 200 Students selected randomly from 10 private schools situated in Amritsar city. The investigator had self developed three Questionnaires to analyse the implementation of provisions of RTE act as perceived by Teachers, Parents and Students. The investigator analyzed the data item wise by using simple percentage analysis. The overall results indicate that the RTE Act, (2009) provisions are not implemented fully in private schools. It is reflected through the present study that the view point of teachers is different from the view point of parents and students. According to teachers, RTE Act is being implemented in schools but parents and students do not think so. According to them there is a gap between the provisions written and their practical implementation. The gap between the written provisions and their practical implementation was considered through interviewing the Parents and Students.

STUDY HABITS AND GENERAL WELL-BEING IN RELATION TO MOBILE PHONE USAGE AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

The purpose of the present study is to investigate the studyhabits and general well- being in relation to mobile phone usage among secondary school students. The study also examined the difference between study habits and general -well being in relation to mobile phone usage with respect to locale and gender. To conduct study 200 respondents from Amritsar City were selected. The study revealed that there is significant relationship between study habitsand general well- being of secondary school students. However the study showed negative relationship between general well -being and mobile phone usage.

Precarity in the Times of Partition: Personal vs Communal Love in Khushwant Singh’s <em>Train to Pakistan</em> and Saadat Hasan Manto’s “Gurmukh Singh ki Wasiyat”

The paper studies how various shades of love respond to precarity in anarchic times by comparing the narrative representation of the aftermath of the Partition of the British colonized Subcontinent into independent countries of India and Pakistan in 1947 with particular focus on Sikh-Muslim relationships in Punjab as presented in Khushwant Singh’s novel Train to Pakistan and Saadat Hasan Manto’s short story “Gurmukh Singh ki Wasiyat.” Employing Judith Butler’s concept of precarity, the paper analyzes how both the writers sketch precarity in partition times ensuing in post-Partition communal violence and effacement of love. The selection of the texts is significant because Singh presents precarity in the multi-ethnic village of Mano Majra whereas Manto presents the city of Amritsar on fire, thus encompassing rural and urban life. Both the texts gradually unleash how the love between communities fades away precipitated by the increasing violence while personal love unflinchingly last even during the times of anarchy, irrespective of communal and religious differences. Jugga who is a Sikh by ethnicity sacrifices his life for his Muslim beloved Nooran and Gurmukh Sing assigns the responsibility of his unflinching gratitude for Mr Abdul Hayee to his son after his death. Whereas before the Partition personal and communal commitments were equally strong, the divergence takes place between the two due to the precarity after Partition that rifts communities apart but personal love remains resilient to socio-political pressures.

Menstrual taboos and social restrictions affecting good menstrual hygiene management among reproductive age group female students

Background: Awareness about menstruation and menstrual hygiene is an important aspect of health education for adolescent girls and pre-menopausal women. Taboos and socio-cultural restrictions still overcome the scientific facts and hygienic health practices among females of different communities. The present study was designed to assess the knowledge, awareness, beliefs, restrictions and practices regarding menstruation among the undergraduate and postgraduate females of Amritsar city of Punjab.Methods: This observational cross-sectional study was conducted among two hundred female students pursuing different degree courses in the university. A pre-designed questionnaire contains thirty five questions related to socio-demographic profile, knowledge and practices and different socio-cultural and environmental factors which affects menstrual hygiene.Results: The study results elicited that majority of the participants know that menstruation was a physiological process and poor menstrual hygiene leads to urinary and reproductive tract infections. As most of the participants were from middle class families residing in the urban areas of the city, they faced fewer restrictions and can access and afford sanitary napkins easily.Conclusions: This study shows a significant association between the age and knowledge of the participants regarding menstrual hygiene practices. The education status of the parents plays an important role in the good menstrual hygiene practices of the participants.

Prevalence of tobacco consumption and smoking and its effect on outcome among microbiologically confirmed new pulmonary tuberculosis patients on daily regimen of DOTS in Amritsar city.

ABSTRACTBackground:Tobacco consumption and smoking are causative factors that can create a favorable environment for tuberculosis and increase the morbidity and mortality attributed to it. Tobacco use is the leading global cause of preventable death (6 million deaths per year). This study compares the treatment outcome in pulmonary tuberculosis patients on DOTS daily regimen with respect to consumption of tobacco and smokingAims:1. To study the prevalence of tobacco consumption and smoking among microbiologically confirmed new pulmonary tuberculosis patients. 2. To study the effect of tobacco consumption and smoking on the outcome of microbiologically confirmed new pulmonary tuberculosis patients.Material and Method:The prospective observational study was conducted on microbiologically confirmed new pulmonary tuberculosis patients enrolled during the first quarter of the year 2019 (i.e., from 01/01/2019 to 03/31/2019) at the four selected DMCs of Amritsar City. In total, 197 patients were included in the study depending on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The prevalence of tobacco consumption and smoking at the start of treatment was noted and the effect on outcome was observedResults:Prevalence of tobacco consumption and smoking was found to be 24.37% and 21.83%, respectively. In addition, 93.96% of non-tobacco consumers and 94.15% of non-smokers had favorable outcomes as compared to 83.34% of tobacco consumers and 81.4% of smokers, which is statistically significantConclusion:Tobacco consumption and smoking have significantly higher chances of unfavorable outcomes (loss to follow up, change in treatment regimen, and death) as compared to non-consumption and non-smoking.

The role of particulate matter in reduced visibility and anionic composition of winter fog: a case study for Amritsar city.

Severe fog events during winter months in India are a serious concern due to the higher incidence of road accidents, flight delays and increased occurrence of respiratory diseases. The present paper is an attempt to study the twenty fog samples collected from the rooftop of an academic building of Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India from November 2017 to January 2018. Fog samples were analysed for various parameters viz. pH, electrical conductivity (EC), chloride (Cl−), nitrate (NO3−) and sulphate (SO42−) levels. The pH, EC, and Cl−, NO3− and SO42− levels in the fog samples were estimated as 6.3–7.9, 240–790 μS cm−1, 108–2025 μeq L−1, 105–836 μeq L−1 and 822–5642 μeq L−1, respectively. It was noticed that sulphate was the dominant anion in fog samples. The SO42− to NO3− molar ratio in the fog was estimated as 7.6 which suggests the burning of fossil fuel as the major pollutant from vehicular exhausts. Multiple regression analysis was performed to evaluate the effect of PM2.5/PM10 ratio and relative humidity (RH) on visibility. A box-cox plot of power transformation produced better model fitting, employing a square root transformation of the visibility which indicated that the PM2.5/PM10 and RH have an exponential effect on visibility.

Tourism Development and the Local Businesses in Amritsar

Introduction. Taking into consideration the possibilities of growth and returns the tourism sector provides to the state of Punjab, of recent the Government of Punjab and the Amritsar city administration have made huge effort in expanding this sector by tapping and promoting various sites and activities for tourist absorption. This study delivers reasons for tourism development in Amritsar and proposes possible information for stakeholders to ensure the suitable tourism planning and management, especially contributing towards the local community. Materials and Methods. Prominent categories of business operators i.e., restaurant owners, traditional shopkeepers, employees from the hospitality sector which included hotels, guest houses, hostels and lastly travel agency owners were interviewed for this study. This sample of 120 respondents was drawn from the inner and outer city areas of Amritsar city of Punjab (India). Results. Tourism is emerging as a ‘saviour economy’ for Amritsar, as a major part of Amritsar’s economy directly and indirectly is dependent on this sector. Business community in Amritsar largely perceives the impacts of tourism development positively. However, respondents felt that the business in Amritsar is also getting negatively affected due to mono–centric development, overflow of tourists and expansionist tourism-centric policies. Tourism development policy can perform better by taking local economies into consideration and increasing participation of local communities in tourism development. This way tourism can create an undeniably positive impact on local communities and local businesses. Discussion and Conclusion. As the current development model of the city is tourism centric, there is an insufficiency in growth of allied sectors as well as in development programmes and a miscoordination is there between different significant stakeholders. This study will be useful to various stakeholders like development authorities, planners, and scholars etc who are interested in addressing the developmental issues being faced by tourist cities. The usefulness of this study lies in the fact that it demonstrates how tourism can be used as a tool for regional development by gaining resident support.

Investigation of metal concentrations in roadside soils and plants in urban areas of Amritsar, Punjab, India, under different traffic densities.

Vehicular emissions containing traces of different heavy metals are known to cause significant contamination of roadside soils and plants. The present study was conducted to investigate the heavy metal concentrations in roadside soil and plant samples (Alstonia scholaris, Nerium oleander, Tabernaemontana divaricata, and Thevetia peruviana) collected from urban areas of Amritsar city of Punjab, India, under different traffic densities. The soil and plant samples were collected in pre- and post-monsoon seasons from seven roadside sites under varying levels of traffic density and analyzed for four heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn). In addition to that, total protein and carotenoid contents in plant samples were also determined. pH and electrical conductivity analysis of roadside soil samples revealed slight to strongly alkaline and non-saline nature of soil. Significant reduction in contents of total proteins and carotenoids was observed in plants collected from sites with moderate to high traffic density. The trend of heavy metal contents in plants and their corresponding soil samples was observed to be Zn > Cu > Pb > Cd for both the seasons. Index of geo-accumulation indicated moderate contamination of soil with metals analyzed, while bio-accumulation factor (BAF) showed both absorption and accumulation of metals in plants under study. The study revealed significant contamination of roadside soil and plants of Amritsar city which was linked to vehicular emissions posing potential risk to human health.

A Review of the Trends in Dental Caries of School-Going Children in Amritsar City Over 65 Years and Its Comparison with Other Regions of North India

A Review of the Trends in Dental Caries of School-Going Children in Amritsar City Over 65 Years and Its Comparison with Other Regions of North India

Morbidity profile of under-5 slum dwellers of Amritsar city: A descriptive cross-sectional study.

Context:Children living in slums are deprived from basic necessities. Unhygienic environment and deficient nutrition hinder their growth and make them more prone to infectious diseases.Aims:To study morbidity profile of under-5 children and determine social epidemiological factors associated with it.Settings and Design:A descriptive cross-sectional study in urban slums of district Amritsar.Methods and Material:In total, 400 households each from four slums (1600 in total) were randomly selected. One to one interview with mother of each under 5 was conducted and information was recorded on pretested performa. Height and weight with haemoglobin estimation was done for each child.Statistical Analysis Used:Descriptive statistics (frequencies and proportions) and univariate logistic regression was applied to determine factors associated with under nutrition.Results:Out of 1136 under-5, 50, 45 and 8% were stunted, underweight and wasted. Severe malnutrition was seen among 23%. In total, 79% had anaemia. About 69% suffered from one or more infectious disease in last 3 months. Anaemia, birth order >2, lower socio-economic status and suffering from any infectious disease in last 3 months were associated with malnutrition.Conclusions:Severe malnutrition and anaemia was high among under-5 of urban slums and 69% suffered from infectious disease in last 3 months emphasizing on addressal of health needs of under-5 residing in urban slums.

Impact of marital or romantic relationship status on substance use among males aged 15-35 years residing in urban slums: A case-control study

Background: Drug use has been popular these days because of various effects on the body and mind. Drugs may alter the way a person thinks and behaves and act. This, in turn, affects their social relationship resulting in negative outcomes. The literature shows that pattern of consumption of alcohol use, varies by marital status, revealing heavy alcohol use among divorced or single people than among those who are married. Aims and Objectives: Impact of marital or romantic relationship status on substance use among males aged 15–35 years residing in urban slums. Materials and Methods: The proposed study was carried out in urban slums of Amritsar city. In each slum, house to house survey was conducted and the household having a male between age group of 15–35 years was noted as per the definitions of case and control. From each slum 15 cases and 15 controls (matched for age) for each age band were selected. For each case, one control (age matched) was selected keeping in mind to take only either one case or control from one household. As soon as, 60 cases and 60 controls were included, further survey was stopped in that slum. Similar methodology was followed in the remaining three slums selected to get a total sample of 480 (240 controls and 240 cases). Results: Among unmarried majority of substance users (73.1%) were not having friend from opposite sex in comparison to substance non-users (58.6%). Among users and non-user majority 67.5% and 61.8%, respectively, said they will get married according to their parents’ choice. Among married majority of substance users (67.8%) got married at age ≤24 years whereas majority of substance non-users (62.1%) married at an age >24 years. Among substance users, a relatively lower proportion (65.3%) gave consent before marriage in comparison to substance non-users (81%). Conclusion: The present study concludes that single and non-dating relationships were associated with heavy drinking and substance use in comparison to marriage and dating relationships.