AMP-activated Protein Kinase Phosphorylation Sites Research Articles

Metabolomics Dysfunction in Replicative Senescence of Periodontal Ligament Stem Cells Regulated by AMPK Signaling Pathway.

Periodontal ligament mesenchymal stem cells (PDLSCs) are a promising cell resource for stem cell-based regenerative medicine in dentistry, but they inevitably acquire a senescent phenotype after prolonged in vitro expansion. The key regulators of PDLSCs during replicative senescence remain unclear. Here, we sought to elucidate the role of metabolomic changes in determining the cellular senescence of PDLSCs. PDLSCs were cultured to passages 4, 10, and 20. The senescent phenotypes of PDLSCs were detected, and metabolomics analysis was performed. We found that PDLSCs manifested senescence phenotype during passaging. Metabolomics analysis showed that the metabolism of replicative senescence in PDLSCs varied significantly. The AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling pathway was closely related to adenosine monophosphate (AMP) levels. The AMP:ATP ratio increased in senescent PDLSCs; however, the levels of p-AMPK, FOXO1 and FOXO3a decreased with senescence. We treated PDLSCs with an activator of the AMPK pathway (AICAR) and observed that the phosphorylated AMPK level at P20 PDLSCs was partially restored. These data delineate that the metabolic process of PDLSCs is active in the early stage of senescence and attenuated in the later stages of senescence; however, the sensitivity of AMPK phosphorylation sites is impaired, causing senescent PDLSCs to fail to respond to changes in energy metabolism.

Natural (dihydro)phenanthrene plant compounds are direct activators of AMPK through its allosteric drug and metabolite–binding site

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a central energy sensor that coordinates the response to energy challenges to maintain cellular ATP levels. AMPK is a potential therapeutic target for treating metabolic disorders, and several direct synthetic activators of AMPK have been developed that show promise in preclinical models of type 2 diabetes. These compounds have been shown to regulate AMPK through binding to a novel allosteric drug and metabolite (ADaM)–binding site on AMPK, and it is possible that other molecules might similarly bind this site. Here, we performed a high-throughput screen with natural plant compounds to identify such direct allosteric activators of AMPK. We identified a natural plant dihydrophenathrene, Lusianthridin, which allosterically activates and protects AMPK from dephosphorylation by binding to the ADaM site. Similar to other ADaM site activators, Lusianthridin showed preferential activation of AMPKβ1-containing complexes in intact cells and was unable to activate an AMPKβ1 S108A mutant. Lusianthridin dose-dependently increased phosphorylation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase in mouse primary hepatocytes, which led to a corresponding decrease in de novo lipogenesis. This ability of Lusianthridin to inhibit lipogenesis was impaired in hepatocytes from β1 S108A knock-in mice and mice bearing a mutation at the AMPK phosphorylation site of acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1/2. Finally, we show that activation of AMPK by natural compounds extends to several analogs of Lusianthridin and the related chemical series, phenanthrenes. The emergence of natural plant compounds that regulate AMPK through the ADaM site raises the distinct possibility that other natural compounds share a common mechanism of regulation.

AMPK phosphorylation of the β1Pix exchange factor regulates the assembly and function of an ENaC inhibitory complex in kidney epithelial cells.

The metabolic sensor AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) inhibits the epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC), a key regulator of salt reabsorption by the kidney and thus total body volume and blood pressure. Recent studies have suggested that AMPK promotes the association of p21-activated kinase-interacting exchange factor-β1 β1Pix, 14-3-3 proteins, and the ubiquitin ligase neural precursor cell expressed developmentally downregulated protein (Nedd)4-2 into a complex that inhibits ENaC by enhancing Nedd4-2 binding to ENaC and ENaC degradation. Functional β1Pix is required for ENaC inhibition by AMPK and promotes Nedd4-2 phosphorylation and stability in mouse kidney cortical collecting duct cells. Here, we report that AMPK directly phosphorylates β1Pix in vitro. Among several AMPK phosphorylation sites on β1Pix detected by mass spectrometry, Ser71 was validated as functionally significant. Compared with wild-type β1Pix, overexpression of a phosphorylation-deficient β1Pix-S71A mutant attenuated ENaC inhibition and the AMPK-activated interaction of both β1Pix and Nedd4-2 to 14-3-3 proteins in cortical collecting duct cells. Similarly, overexpression of a β1Pix-Δ602-611 deletion tract mutant unable to bind 14-3-3 proteins decreased the interaction between Nedd4-2 and 14-3-3 proteins, suggesting that 14-3-3 binding to β1Pix is critical for the formation of a β1Pix/Nedd4-2/14-3-3 complex. With expression of a general peptide inhibitor of 14-3-3-target protein interactions (R18), binding of both β1Pix and Nedd4-2 to 14-3-3 proteins was reduced, and AMPK-dependent ENaC inhibition was also attenuated. Altogether, our results demonstrate the importance of AMPK-mediated phosphorylation of β1Pix at Ser71, which promotes 14-3-3 interactions with β1Pix and Nedd4-2 to form a tripartite ENaC inhibitory complex, in the mechanism of ENaC regulation by AMPK.

AMPK and AKT protein kinases hierarchically phosphorylate the N-terminus of the FOXO1 transcription factor, modulating interactions with 14-3-3 proteins

Forkhead box protein O1 (FOXO1) is a transcription factor involved in various cellular processes such as glucose metabolism, development, stress resistance, and tumor suppression. FOXO1's transcriptional activity is controlled by different environmental cues through a myriad of posttranslational modifications. In response to growth factors, the serine/threonine kinase AKT phosphorylates Thr24 and Ser256 in FOXO1 to stimulate binding of 14-3-3 proteins, causing FOXO1 inactivation. In contrast, low nutrient and energy levels induce FOXO1 activity. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), a master regulator of cellular energy homeostasis, partly mediates this effect through phosphorylation of Ser383 and Thr649 in FOXO1. In this study, we identified Ser22 as an additional AMPK phosphorylation site in FOXO1's N terminus, with Ser22 phosphorylation preventing binding of 14-3-3 proteins. The crystal structure of a FOXO1 peptide in complex with 14-3-3 σ at 2.3 Å resolution revealed that this is a consequence of both steric hindrance and electrostatic repulsion. Furthermore, we found that AMPK-mediated Ser22 phosphorylation impairs Thr24 phosphorylation by AKT in a hierarchical manner. Thus, numerous mechanisms maintain FOXO1 activity via AMPK signaling. AMPK-mediated Ser22 phosphorylation directly and indirectly averts binding of 14-3-3 proteins, whereas phosphorylation of Ser383 and Thr649 complementarily stimulates FOXO1 activity. Our results shed light on a mechanism that integrates inputs from both AMPK and AKT signaling pathways in a small motif to fine-tune FOXO1 transcriptional activity.

Global phosphoproteomic analysis reveals ARMC10 as an AMPK substrate that regulates mitochondrial dynamics

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a key regulator of cellular energy homeostasis. Although AMPK has been studied extensively in cellular processes, understanding of its substrates and downstream functional network, and their contributions to cell fate and disease development, remains incomplete. To elucidate the AMPK-dependent signaling pathways, we performed global quantitative phosphoproteomic analysis using wild-type and AMPKα1/α2-double knockout cells and discovered 160 AMPK-dependent phosphorylation sites. Further analysis using an AMPK consensus phosphorylation motif indicated that 32 of these sites are likely direct AMPK phosphorylation sites. We validated one uncharacterized protein, ARMC10, and demonstrated that the S45 site of ARMC10 can be phosphorylated by AMPK both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, ARMC10 overexpression was sufficient to promote mitochondrial fission, whereas ARMC10 knockout prevented AMPK-mediated mitochondrial fission. These results demonstrate that ARMC10 is an effector of AMPK that participates in dynamic regulation of mitochondrial fission and fusion.

PO-245 Exercise at the lactate threshold (LT) and above the LT increases phosphorylation of AMPK and Akt in rat skeletal muscle


 Objective A single bout of exercise can enhance glucose uptake in skeletal muscle. It is well established that AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation is required for stimulation of glucose uptake by exercise. After the initial phosphorylation of glucose by hexokinase, glucose is further utilized to mitochondrial oxidation during exercise. The direct or functional interaction between hexokinase and Akt may act to integrate glucose metabolism in working muscle. Hence, AMPK and Akt activation would be cooperatively regulated exercise-induced activation of glucose metabolism. Although exercise at the lactate threshold (LT) and above the LT sharply increase glucose uptake via increasing AMPK activity, whether LT exercise can also increase Akt activity is still unknown. Therefore, we examined the AMPK and Akt activity immediately after several intensities of exercise.
 Methods Male wistar rats (250-270 g) were randomly assigned to 3 groups: Resting control (sedentary, n=16), Low-intensity exercise (LIE: 10 m/min for 30 min, n=8), LT intensity exercise 1 (LTE1: 17.5 m/min for 30 min, n=8), LT intensity exercise 2 (LTE2: 22.5 m/min for 30 min, n=8), and High-intensity exercise (HE: 27.5 m/min for 30 min, n=8). Immediately after each treadmill exercise, plantaris and soleus muscles were dissected.
 Results LIE exercise did not changed AMPK phosphorylation site (Thr172), indicator of AMPK activity, and Akt phosphorylation site (Ser473, Thr308), indicator of Akt activity, in these muscles compared with resting control. At and above LTE1 exercise increased the phosphorylation of AMPK in these tissues. At and above LTE2 exercise increased the phosphorylation of Akt in these tissues. Therefore, increasing AMPK and Akt activity immediately after LT exercise possibly involved with regulating glucose metabolism.
 Conclusions Phosphorylation of AMPK and Akt is increased immediately after at and above LT exercise in rat soleus and plantaris muscle.

AMP-activated protein kinase–mediated feedback phosphorylation controls the Ca2+/calmodulin (CaM) dependence of Ca2+/CaM-dependent protein kinase kinase β

The Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase β (CaMKKβ)/5'-AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) phosphorylation cascade affects various Ca2+-dependent metabolic pathways and cancer growth. Unlike recombinant CaMKKβ that exhibits higher basal activity (autonomous activity), activation of the CaMKKβ/AMPK signaling pathway requires increased intracellular Ca2+ concentrations. Moreover, the Ca2+/CaM dependence of CaMKKβ appears to arise from multiple phosphorylation events, including autophosphorylation and activities furnished by other protein kinases. However, the effects of proximal downstream kinases on CaMKKβ activity have not yet been evaluated. Here, we demonstrate feedback phosphorylation of CaMKKβ at multiple residues by CaMKKβ-activated AMPK in addition to autophosphorylation in vitro, leading to reduced autonomous, but not Ca2+/CaM-activated, CaMKKβ activity. MS analysis and site-directed mutagenesis of AMPK phosphorylation sites in CaMKKβ indicated that Thr144 phosphorylation by activated AMPK converts CaMKKβ into a Ca2+/CaM-dependent enzyme as shown by completely Ca2+/CaM-dependent CaMKK activity of a phosphomimetic T144E CaMKKβ mutant. CaMKKβ mutant analysis indicated that the C-terminal domain (residues 471-587), including the autoinhibitory region, plays an important role in stabilizing an inactive conformation in a Thr144 phosphorylation-dependent manner. Furthermore, immunoblot analysis with anti-phospho-Thr144 antibody revealed phosphorylation of Thr144 in CaMKKβ in transfected COS-7 cells that was further enhanced by exogenous expression of AMPKα. These results indicate that AMPK-mediated feedback phosphorylation of CaMKKβ regulates the CaMKKβ/AMPK signaling cascade and may be physiologically important for intracellular maintenance of Ca2+-dependent AMPK activation by CaMKKβ.

Acetyl-CoA carboxylase rewires cancer metabolism to allow cancer cells to survive inhibition of the Warburg effect by cetuximab

Cetuximab inhibits HIF-1-regulated glycolysis in cancer cells, thereby reversing the Warburg effect and leading to inhibition of cancer cell metabolism. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is activated after cetuximab treatment, and a sustained AMPK activity is a mechanism contributing to cetuximab resistance. Here, we investigated how acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), a downstream target of AMPK, rewires cancer metabolism in response to cetuximab treatment. We found that introduction of experimental ACC mutants lacking the AMPK phosphorylation sites (ACC1_S79A and ACC2_S212A) into head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) cells protected HNSCC cells from cetuximab-induced growth inhibition. HNSCC cells with acquired cetuximab resistance contained not only high levels of T172-phosphorylated AMPK and S79-phosphorylated ACC1 but also an increased level of total ACC. These findings were corroborated in tumor specimens of HNSCC patients treated with cetuximab. Cetuximab plus TOFA (an allosteric inhibitor of ACC) achieved remarkable growth inhibition of cetuximab-resistant HNSCC xenografts. Our data suggest a novel paradigm in which cetuximab-mediated activation of AMPK and subsequent phosphorylation and inhibition of ACC is followed by a compensatory increase in total ACC, which rewires cancer metabolism from glycolysis-dependent to lipogenesis-dependent.

Abstract 4963: A distinct AMP-activated protein kinase phosphorylation site is associated with metastasis and castration-resistance in prostate cancer

Abstract AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a critical regulator of cellular metabolism and plays important role in the development and progression of several human diseases including cancer. We have previously shown that AMPKα activity is significantly inhibited by Ser-485/491 phosphorylation in cell culture and in vivo models of metastatic and castration-resistant prostate cancer. To determine potential translatability, we investigated AMPKα-Ser-485/491 phosphorylation status in clinical prostate cancer specimens and its correlation with metastasis and progression to castration-resistance. Metastasis and matched primary tumor specimens from 45 metastatic prostate cancer patients, 31.1% of which were post-androgen deprivation therapy failure (castration-resistant prostate cancer), and primary tumor specimens from 30 non-metastatic, hormone-dependent prostate cancer patients with undetectable PSA for a mean of 97.1 ± 17.5 months were obtained from the University Hospitals Case Medical Center Pathology Archive. Slides were cut from paraffin blocks, immunostained for p-Ser-485/491 AMPKα and total AMPKα, analyzed by a pathologist, and statistical significance determined by T-test, Kruskal-Wallis test, Fisher's exact test, or Chi-Square test. Mean pre-diagnostic biopsy PSA was 6.5 ng/mL (range 1.20-25.3 ng/mL) in non-metastatic patients and 501.9 ng/mL (range 1.82-3200 ng/mL) in metastatic patients (p < 0.0001). Mean total Gleason score of primary tumors was 6.5 in the non-metastatic group and 8.2 in the metastatic group (p < 0.0001); primary prostate tumor volume (mean ± S.D.) was 22.1 ± 19.5% in the non-metastatic group and 68.1 ± 28.7% in the metastatic group (p < 0.0001). The intensity of overall p-Ser-485/491 AMPKα staining and the number of p-Ser-485/491 AMPKα positively-stained cells was significantly increased in primary prostate tumors (p = 0.0003 and p = 0.0008, respectively) and metastases (p = 0.0011 and p = 0.0062, respectively) of metastatic prostate cancer patients when compared to staining of primary tumor specimens from non-metastatic prostate cancer patients. Further, the intensity of overall p-Ser-485/491 AMPKα staining increased 2.21-fold (p = 0.0050) and the number of p-Ser-485/491 AMPKα positively-stained cells increased 1.77-fold (p = 0.0041) in castration-resistant metastatic prostate cancer specimens compared to androgen-dependent prostate cancer specimens. Therefore, AMPKα Ser-485/491 phosphorylation is associated with metastasis and castration-resistance in clinical prostate cancer and may be a novel target for treatment. Citation Format: Melissa A. Babcook, Mahmut Akgul, Seunghee Margevicius, Gregory T. MacLennan, Pingfu Fu, Robert Abouassaly, Sanjay Gupta. A distinct AMP-activated protein kinase phosphorylation site is associated with metastasis and castration-resistance in prostate cancer. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 107th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2016 Apr 16-20; New Orleans, LA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2016;76(14 Suppl):Abstract nr 4963.

High intensity interval training improves liver and adipose tissue insulin sensitivity.

ObjectiveEndurance exercise training reduces insulin resistance, adipose tissue inflammation and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), an effect often associated with modest weight loss. Recent studies have indicated that high-intensity interval training (HIIT) lowers blood glucose in individuals with type 2 diabetes independently of weight loss; however, the organs affected and mechanisms mediating the glucose lowering effects are not known. Intense exercise increases phosphorylation and inhibition of acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) by AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in muscle, adipose tissue and liver. AMPK and ACC are key enzymes regulating fatty acid metabolism, liver fat content, adipose tissue inflammation and insulin sensitivity but the importance of this pathway in regulating insulin sensitivity with HIIT is unknown.MethodsIn the current study, the effects of 6 weeks of HIIT were examined using obese mice with serine–alanine knock-in mutations on the AMPK phosphorylation sites of ACC1 and ACC2 (AccDKI) or wild-type (WT) controls.ResultsHIIT lowered blood glucose and increased exercise capacity, food intake, basal activity levels, carbohydrate oxidation and liver and adipose tissue insulin sensitivity in HFD-fed WT and AccDKI mice. These changes occurred independently of weight loss or reductions in adiposity, inflammation and liver lipid content.ConclusionsThese data indicate that HIIT lowers blood glucose levels by improving adipose and liver insulin sensitivity independently of changes in adiposity, adipose tissue inflammation, liver lipid content or AMPK phosphorylation of ACC.

Identification of AMPK Phosphorylation Sites Reveals a Network of Proteins Involved in Cell Invasion and Facilitates Large-Scale Substrate Prediction

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a central energy gauge that regulates metabolism and has been increasingly involved in non-metabolic processes and diseases. However, AMPK's direct substrates in non-metabolic contexts are largely unknown. To better understand the AMPK network, we use a chemicalgenetics screen coupled to a peptide capture approach in whole cells, resulting in identification of direct AMPK phosphorylation sites. Interestingly, the high-confidence AMPK substrates contain many proteins involved in cell motility, adhesion, and invasion. AMPK phosphorylation of the RHOA guanine nucleotide exchange factor NET1A inhibits extracellular matrix degradation, an early step in cell invasion. The identification of direct AMPK phosphorylation sites also facilitates large-scale prediction of AMPK substrates. We provide an AMPK motif matrix and apipeline to predict additional AMPK substrates from quantitative phosphoproteomics datasets. As AMPK is emerging as a critical node in aging and pathological processes, our study identifies potential targets for therapeutic strategies.

Skeletal muscle ACC2 S212 phosphorylation is not required for the control of fatty acid oxidation during exercise.

During submaximal exercise fatty acids are a predominant energy source for muscle contractions. An important regulator of fatty acid oxidation is acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), which exists as two isoforms (ACC1 and ACC2) with ACC2 predominating in skeletal muscle. Both ACC isoforms regulate malonyl-CoA production, an allosteric inhibitor of carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT-1); the primary enzyme controlling fatty acyl-CoA flux into mitochondria for oxidation. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a sensor of cellular energy status that is activated during exercise or by pharmacological agents such as metformin and AICAR. In resting muscle the activation of AMPK with AICAR leads to increased phosphorylation of ACC (S79 on ACC1 and S221 on ACC2), which reduces ACC activity and malonyl-CoA; effects associated with increased fatty acid oxidation. However, whether this pathway is vital for regulating skeletal muscle fatty acid oxidation during conditions of increased metabolic flux such as exercise/muscle contractions remains unknown. To examine this we characterized mice lacking AMPK phosphorylation sites on ACC2 (S212 in mice/S221 in humans-ACC2-knock-in [ACC2-KI]) or both ACC1 (S79) and ACC2 (S212) (ACC double knock-in [ACCD-KI]) during submaximal treadmill exercise and/or ex vivo muscle contractions. We find that surprisingly, ACC2-KI mice had normal exercise capacity and whole-body fatty acid oxidation during treadmill running despite elevated muscle ACC2 activity and malonyl-CoA. Similar results were observed in ACCD-KI mice. Fatty acid oxidation was also maintained in muscles from ACC2-KI mice contracted ex vivo. These findings indicate that pathways independent of ACC phosphorylation are important for regulating skeletal muscle fatty acid oxidation during exercise/muscle contractions.

AMP-Activated Kinase Regulates Lipid Droplet Localization and Stability of Adipose Triglyceride Lipase in C. elegans Dauer Larvae.

Animals have developed diverse mechanisms to adapt to their changing environment. Like many organisms the free-living nematode C. elegans can alternate between a reproductive mode or a diapause-like "dauer" stage during larval development to circumvent harsh environmental conditions. The master metabolic regulator AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is critical for survival during the dauer stage, where it phosphorylates adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL-1) at multiple sites to block lipid hydrolysis and ultimately protect the cellular triglyceride-based energy depot from rapid depletion. However, how the AMPK-mediated phosphorylation affects the function of ATGL-1 has not been characterised at the molecular level. Here we show that AMPK phosphorylation leads to the generation of 14-3-3 binding sites on ATGL-1, which are recognized by the C. elegans 14-3-3 protein orthologue PAR-5. Physical interaction of ATGL-1 with PAR-5 results in sequestration of ATGL-1 away from the lipid droplets and eventual proteasome-mediated degradation. In addition, we also show that the major AMPK phosphorylation site on ATGL-1, Ser 303, is required for both modification of its lipid droplet localization and its degradation. Our data provide mechanistic insight as to how AMPK functions to enhance survival through its ability to protect the accumulated triglyceride deposits from rapid hydrolysis to preserve the energy stores during periods of extended environmental duress.

Glucose-Based Regulation of miR-451/AMPK Signaling Depends on the OCT1 Transcription Factor

In aggressive, rapidly growing solid tumors such as glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), cancer cells face frequent dynamic changes in their microenvironment, including the availability of glucose and other nutrients. These challenges require that tumor cells have the ability to adapt in order to survive periods of nutrient/energy starvation. We have identified a reciprocal negative feedback loop mechanism in which the levels of microRNA-451 (miR-451) are negatively regulated through the phosphorylation and inactivation of its direct transcriptional activator OCT1 by 5' AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which is activated by glucose depletion-induced metabolic stress. Conversely, in a glucose-rich environment, unrestrained expression of miR-451 suppresses AMPK pathway activity. These findings uncover miR-451 as a major effector of glucose-regulated AMPK signaling, allowing tumor cell adaptation to variations in nutrient availability in the tumor microenvironment.

Identification of an AMPK phosphorylation site in Drosophila TSC2 (gigas) that regulate cell growth.

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is an important metabolic regulator that mediates cellular adaptation to diverse stresses. One of the AMPK substrates, tuberous sclerosis complex 2 (TSC2), was suggested to mediate AMPK-induced silencing of mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling that is critical for cell growth. However, it is not known whether the AMPK-dependent TSC2 phosphorylation, originally observed in mammalian cells, is conserved in invertebrates. Here we show that energy depletion inhibits mTORC1 signaling through the AMPK-TSC2 axis in Drosophila S2 cells. We have discovered an AMPK phosphorylation site in TSC2-like genes from many different invertebrate species including Drosophila. The site (Ser1338 in Drosophila TSC2) is specifically and efficiently phosphorylated by AMPK in vitro. To evaluate the functional role of this phosphorylation site in vivo, we generated transgenic flies that can express identical amount of either wild-type or phosphorylation-resistant mutant Drosophila TSC2 in a tissue-specific manner. In response to transgenic Sestrin induction, which causes ectopic AMPK activation and subsequent mTORC1 inhibition, wild-type Drosophila TSC2 synergistically reduced tissue growth in the dorsal epithelium of Drosophila wings. However, phosphorylation-resistant mutant Drosophila TSC2 was unable to show such a growth-inhibiting effect, suggesting that this phosphorylation is important for AMPK-dependent regulation of cell growth.

Investigating fatty acid transport and β- fatty acid oxidation (FAO) in placentas exposed to hyperglycemia

Cetuximab inhibits HIF-1-regulated glycolysis in cancer cells, thereby reversing the Warburg effect and leading to inhibition of cancer cell metabolism. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is activated after cetuximab treatment, and a sustained AMPK activity is a mechanism contributing to cetuximab resistance. Here, we investigated how acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), a downstream target of AMPK, rewires cancer metabolism in response to cetuximab treatment. We found that introduction of experimental ACC mutants lacking the AMPK phosphorylation sites (ACC1_S79A and ACC2_S212A) into head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) cells protected HNSCC cells from cetuximab-induced growth inhibition. HNSCC cells with acquired cetuximab resistance contained not only high levels of T172-phosphorylated AMPK and S79-phosphorylated ACC1 but also an increased level of total ACC. These findings were corroborated in tumor specimens of HNSCC patients treated with cetuximab. Cetuximab plus TOFA (an allosteric inhibitor of ACC) achieved remarkable growth inhibition of cetuximab-resistant HNSCC xenografts. Our data suggest a novel paradigm in which cetuximab-mediated activation of AMPK and subsequent phosphorylation and inhibition of ACC is followed by a compensatory increase in total ACC, which rewires cancer metabolism from glycolysis-dependent to lipogenesis-dependent.

AMP-activated protein kinase regulates the vacuolar H+-ATPase via direct phosphorylation of the A subunit (ATP6V1A) in the kidney

The vacuolar H(+)-ATPase (V-ATPase) in intercalated cells contributes to luminal acidification in the kidney collecting duct and nonvolatile acid excretion. We previously showed that the A subunit in the cytoplasmic V1 sector of the V-ATPase (ATP6V1A) is phosphorylated by the metabolic sensor AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in vitro and in kidney cells. Here, we demonstrate that treatment of rabbit isolated, perfused collecting ducts with the AMPK activator 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-β-D-ribofuranoside (AICAR) inhibited V-ATPase-dependent H(+) secretion from intercalated cells after an acid load. We have identified by mass spectrometry that Ser-384 is a major AMPK phosphorylation site in the V-ATPase A subunit, a result confirmed by comparing AMPK-dependent phosphate labeling of wild-type A-subunit (WT-A) with that of a Ser-384-to-Ala A subunit mutant (S384A-A) in vitro and in intact HEK-293 cells. Compared with WT-A-expressing HEK-293 cells, S384A-A-expressing cells exhibited greater steady-state acidification of HCO3(-)-containing media. Moreover, AICAR treatment of clone C rabbit intercalated cells expressing the WT-A subunit reduced V-ATPase-dependent extracellular acidification, an effect that was blocked in cells expressing the phosphorylation-deficient S384A-A mutant. Finally, expression of the S384A-A mutant prevented cytoplasmic redistribution of the V-ATPase by AICAR in clone C cells. In summary, direct phosphorylation of the A subunit at Ser-384 by AMPK represents a novel regulatory mechanism of the V-ATPase in kidney intercalated cells. Regulation of the V-ATPase by AMPK may couple V-ATPase activity to cellular metabolic status with potential relevance to ischemic injury in the kidney and other tissues.

A preferred AMPK phosphorylation site adjacent to the inhibitory loop of cardiac and skeletal troponin I.

5'-AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a serine/threonine protein kinase that is activated when cellular AMP to ATP ratios rise, potentially serving as a key regulator of cellular energetics. Among the known targets of AMPK are catabolic and anabolic enzymes, but little is known about the ability of this kinase to phosphorylate myofilament proteins and thereby regulating the contractile apparatus of striated muscles. Here, we demonstrate that troponin I isoforms of cardiac (cTnI) and fast skeletal (fsTnI) muscles are readily phosphorylated by AMPK. For cTnI, two highly conserved serine residues were identified as AMPK sites using a combination of high-resolution top-down electron capture dissociation mass spectrometry, (32) P-incorporation, synthetic peptides, phospho-specific antibodies, and site-directed mutagenesis. These AMPK sites in cTnI were Ser149 adjacent to the inhibitory loop and Ser22 in the cardiac-specific N-terminal extension, at the level of cTnI peptides, the intact cTnI subunit, whole cardiac troponin complexes and skinned cardiomyocytes. Phosphorylation time-course experiments revealed that Ser149 was the preferred site, because it was phosphorylated 12-16-fold faster than Ser22 in cTnI. Ser117 in fsTnI, analogous to Ser149 in cTnI, was phosphorylated with similar kinetics as cTnI Ser149. Hence, the master energy-sensing protein AMPK emerges as a possibly important regulator of cardiac and skeletal contractility via phosphorylation of a preferred site adjacent to the inhibitory loop of the thin filament protein TnI.

Autophagy: Regulation by Energy Sensing

Autophagy is inhibited by the mTOR signaling pathway, which is stimulated by increased amino acid levels. When cellular energy production is compromised, AMP-activated protein kinase is activated, mTOR is inhibited and autophagy is stimulated. Two recent studies have shed light on the molecular mechanism by which AMPK controls autophagic flux.

Contraction regulates site-specific phosphorylation of TBC1D1 in skeletal muscle

TBC1D1 (tre-2/USP6, BUB2, cdc16 domain family member 1) is a Rab-GAP (GTPase-activating protein) that is highly expressed in skeletal muscle, but little is known about TBC1D1 regulation and function. We studied TBC1D1 phosphorylation on three predicted AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase) phosphorylation sites (Ser231, Ser660 and Ser700) and one predicted Akt phosphorylation site (Thr590) in control mice, AMPKα2 inactive transgenic mice (AMPKα2i TG) and Akt2-knockout mice (Akt2 KO). Muscle contraction significantly increased TBC1D1 phosphorylation on Ser231 and Ser660, tended to increase Ser700 phosphorylation, but had no effect on Thr590. AICAR (5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxyamide ribonucleoside) also increased phosphorylation on Ser231, Ser660 and Ser700, but not Thr590, whereas insulin only increased Thr590 phosphorylation. Basal and contraction-stimulated TBC1D1 Ser231, Ser660 and Ser700 phosphorylation were greatly reduced in AMPKα2i TG mice, although contraction still elicited a small increase in phosphorylation. Akt2 KO mice had blunted insulin-stimulated TBC1D1 Thr590 phosphorylation. Contraction-stimulated TBC1D1 Ser231 and Ser660 phosphorylation were normal in high-fat-fed mice. Glucose uptake in vivo was significantly decreased in tibialis anterior muscles overexpressing TBC1D1 mutated on four predicted AMPK phosphorylation sites. In conclusion, contraction causes site-specific phosphorylation of TBC1D1 in skeletal muscle, and TBC1D1 phosphorylation on AMPK sites regulates contraction-stimulated glucose uptake. AMPK and Akt regulate TBC1D1 phosphorylation, but there must be additional upstream kinases that mediate TBC1D1 phosphorylation in skeletal muscle.