Amoy Gardens Research Articles

COVID -19 and its effect on Marketing of Solar Water Heater

Science, Technology, Inventions, innovations – these are some words which defines the progress and the development of human race. Energy sources like oil, coal and natural gas which humans are using for past many decades are economically feasible but their direct and indirect environmental consequences cannot be unseen. A new thing has emerged 2019 – 20 that we are not able to understand and not able to find the 100% cure is COVID -19. The whole world is in lockdown mode for last one year. Even though the activities have started post lockdown period, the installation and maintenance activities are not back to the track mainly because of the high dependency on exports from China for solar cells and solar modules. The ban on export activities have impacted the world. Researchers are predicting that SARS-CoV-2 can spread by water and aerosols also after taking reference from Amoy Garden case during SARS-CoV in 2003 and some of them have found the water samples positive for COVID-19 tests. As it is evident from the literature that some viruses are susceptible to high temperature, the same behavior was observed for corona virus so the Integrated Collector Storage (ICS) present in solar water heater system can be used for water heating. It is significant that by increasing the water temperature could reduce the disinfection time. 

Outdoor Airborne Transmission of Coronavirus Among Apartments in High-Density Cities

The coronaviruses have inflicted health and societal crises in recent decades. Both SARS CoV-1 and 2 are suspected to spread through outdoor routes in high-density cities, infecting residents in apartments on separate floors or in different buildings in many superspreading events, often in the absence of close personal contact. The viability of such mode of transmission is disputed in the research literature, and there is little evidence on the dose–response relationship at the apartment level. This paper describes a study to examine the viability of outdoor airborne transmission between neighboring apartments in high density cities. A first-principles model, airborne transmissionviaoutdoor route (ATOR), was developed to simulate airborne pathogen generation, natural decay, outdoor dispersion, apartment entry, and inhalation exposure of susceptible persons in neighboring apartments. The model was partially evaluated using a smoke tracer experiment in a mock-up high-density city site and cross-checking using the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models. The ATOR model was used to retrospectively investigate the relationship between viral exposure and disease infection at an apartment level in two superspreading events in Hong Kong: the SARS outbreak in Amoy Gardens and the COVID-19 outbreak in Luk Chuen House. Logistic regression results suggested that the predicted viral exposure was positively correlated with the probability of disease infection at apartment level for both events. Infection risks associated with the outdoor route transmission of SARS can be reduced to <10%, if the quanta emission rate from the primary patient is below 30 q/h. Compared with the indoor route transmission, the outdoor route can better explain patterns of disease infection. A viral plume can spread upward and downward, driven by buoyancy forces, while also dispersing under natural wind. Fan-assistant natural ventilation in residential buildings may increase infection risks. Findings have implication for public health response to current and future pandemics and the ATOR model can serve as planning and design tool to identify the risk of airborne disease transmission in high-density cities.

The sequel to COVID-19: the antithesis to life

The sequel to COVID-19: the antithesis to life

SARS-CoV-2: The Growing Case for Potential Transmission in a Building via Wastewater Plumbing Systems.

SARS-CoV-2: The Growing Case for Potential Transmission in a Building via Wastewater Plumbing Systems.

Airborne route and bad use of ventilation systems as non-negligible factors in SARS-CoV-2 transmission

SummaryThe world is facing a pandemic of unseen proportions caused by a corona virus named SARS-CoV-2 with unprecedent worldwide measures being taken to tackle its contagion. Person-to-person transmission is accepted but WHO only considers aerosol transmission when procedures or support treatments that produce aerosol are performed. Transmission mechanisms are not fully understood and there is evidence for an airborne route to be considered, as the virus remains viable in aerosols for at least 3 h and that mask usage was the best intervention to prevent infection.Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning Systems (HVAC) are used as a primary infection disease control measure. However, if not correctly used, they may contribute to the transmission/spreading of airborne diseases as proposed in the past for SARS.The authors believe that airborne transmission is possible and that HVAC systems when not adequately used may contribute to the transmission of the virus, as suggested by descriptions from Japan, Germany, and the Diamond Princess Cruise Ship. Previous SARS outbreaks reported at Amoy Gardens, Emergency Rooms and Hotels, also suggested an airborne transmission.Further studies are warranted to confirm our hypotheses but the assumption of such way of transmission would cause a major shift in measures recommended to prevent infection such as the disseminated use of masks and structural changes to hospital and other facilities with HVAC systems.

Challenges in food waste recycling in high-rise buildings and public design for sustainability: A case in Hong Kong

In recent decades, various studies on policy, management, behaviour, norms and economic incentives related to food waste issues have been conducted. Many of the studies are from a quantitative perspective which has given a wider but general coverage of study and analysis on the matters. However, the impacts of context, such as living environments and social culture, on recycling activities from a qualitative as well as in-depth perspective have seldom been discussed, especially in densely populated communities. Taking Hong Kong as an example, some food waste recycling (FWR) initiatives have been launched in housing estates. However, most projects have been suspended due to many practical problems. Only a few cases are still on-going. Physical setting quality has been identified as a significant factor affecting sustainable behaviour. Inefficient and low-quality public designs that do not consider living environments and specific lifestyles may fail to encourage community participation. This study aims to provide a more in-depth investigation into people’s attitudes and actual behaviour towards and to shed light on public design for sustainability. Using the FWR programme in Amoy Gardens as a case, this study uses qualitative research methods to explore FWR experiences and improve its weaknesses. The findings show three potential challenges to FWR in densely populated high-rise buildings: (1) limited space, (2) hygiene issues and (3) implementation and management. This study also provides implications for public design to improve sustainability in communities and encourage public participation in FWR in high-density residential areas.

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Beyond Amoy Gardens: Completing the Incomplete Legacy

The temporal and spatial distributions of the 2003 severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreak in Amoy Gardens of Hong Kong was reexamined using all confirmed cases. The outbreak actually extended to nearby residential complexes. Airborne spread was the most likely explanation, and the SARS coronavirus could have spread over a distance of 200 m.

The Metropole, Superspreaders, and Other Mysteries

For all that has been learned about SARS in the past 10 years, mysteries still endure. What happened at the Metropole Hotel in Hong Kong the night of 21 February 2003? How did SARS spread at the Amoy Gardens, a high-rise apartment building complex? And how do "superspreaders" emerge?

The secret behind the mask

The secret behind the mask

Pressure transient identification of depleted appliance trap seals: a sinusoidal wave technique

Depleted appliance trap seals were shown to be a causal factor in the spread of the SARS virus at the Amoy Gardens housing complex in Hong Kong in 2003. This serious health risk has emphasised the requirement for an effective maintenance regime to ensure trap seals do not again facilitate the spread of infection and disease. This paper introduces a remote and non-invasive technique to identify depleted trap seals through analysis of the system response to an applied sinusoidal pressure wave. The pressure signal will be analysed in both the time domain and the frequency domain to determine system status. Results obtained from laboratory experiments will be used to confirm the practicality of this technique while a Method of Characteristic based numerical model will validate the methodology. Practical application: The transients generated within the building drainage system as a result of normal system operation continue to pose a threat to the integrity of the appliance trap seal. The technique outlined in this paper will help to quickly identify defective trap seals to ensure that cross-contamination is minimised. However, it is important that this transient-based technique does not itself introduce an additional risk to trap integrity. A sinusoidal pressure wave offers a completely non-invasive testing option that will not only be of great advantage to facility managers but also to the building users due to the reduced risk of cross-contamination.

Pressure transient identification of depleted appliance trap seals: a pressure pulse technique

The appliance trap seal plays a vital role in safeguarding occupied space from ingress of foul sewer gases driven by the barrage of pressure transients generated within the system during normal appliance discharge. The health risks related to depleted trap seals can be severe. In 2003, the rapid spread of the SARS virus at the Amoy Gardens housing complex in Hong Kong was attributed to depleted bathroom floor-drain traps. This paper presents a technique whereby depleted trap seals can be located remotely by monitoring the system response to an applied single pressure pulse. A Method of Characteristic based numerical model allows the system pressure response to be predicted while laboratory and site test results are shown to validate this proposed technique. Practical application: Appliance trap seal depletion poses a serious health risk by providing a route for cross-contamination and infection spread. Implementing a routine and regular maintenance regime would help to ensure that the water level within the trap seal remains above the critical level. However, current methods rely on visual inspections which are highly impractical in large complex buildings. A technique allowing the status of all connected trap seals to be quickly determined would be an invaluable tool for facility managers by improving operational efficiency and by indicating persistent failures, thus, highlighting areas requiring modification to ensure performance compliance.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome: An update

The medical community will long remember the winter of 2002. An outbreak of an unusual form of respiratory illness started in the Southern Chinese province of Guangdong. It was characterised by a severe form of pneumonia caused by typical or atypical organisms. It also had a propensity to spread among household contacts and healthcare providers [1]. It spread quickly from mainland China, to Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, Vietnam, Canada, USA and UK. The Public Health Specialist's nightmare of a rapidly spreading infection carried on the wings of modern jet airliner was a reality. A total of 8098 cases were reported, from 01 November 2002 to 31 July 2003 [2, 3]. India was also affected with three probable cases and 10 suspect cases reported. Statistics from the most affected regions are listed in Table 1. Table 1 SARS statistics (01November 2002 to 31 July 2003) The overall mortality rate was 11% and the attack rate was 53%. The disease mainly spreads by droplets or close person to person contact. Contact with contaminated skin, secretions and excreta of patients are also postulated to be the modes of spread. The rapid spread of cases in the Amoy Gardens Apartment complex in Hong Kong and Metropole Hotel in Singapore have raised questions about airborne and vector borne (rats) transmission [3, 4]. Majority of patients may not effectively transmit the virus, but some are “super-spreaders” and they transmit the virus to a large number of individuals [4]. These super-spreaders and nosocomial amplifications were responsible for the early 2003 outbreaks. Initially, the disease was thought to be a type of ‘bird flu', after all, an avian flu epidemic had occurred in Hong Kong in 1997. On 26 February 2003, a Chinese-American businessman was admitted to a French Hospital in Hanoi with fever, dry cough and difficulty in breathing. Dr Carlo Urbani (the World Health Organisation (WHO) public health specialist in Vietnam, who later succumbed to severe acute respiratory syndrome), attended him. The rapid deterioration in the patient's condition and occurrence of similar symptoms in ten other persons working in the hospital made him suspect that this was not a simple epidemic of avian flu. He notified the WHO and a team of experts was rushed to investigate the outbreak [5]. WHO also formed a Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) working group comprising of 11 research laboratories all over the world to try and identify the causative agent and develop diagnostic tests [6]. The initial suspects were a paramyxovirus and human metapneumovirus. These organisms were however found in only a few clusters of cases. The turning point was the detection of an agent that produced a distinct cytopathic effect on Rhesus monkey kidney cells [7]. Electron microscopy further revealed virus-like particles. The very next day, a laboratory in United States identified these to be corona virus particles. Primers against corona virus were used to test samples all over the world and a high positivity was reported. Three pathogenic families of corona viruses are known. They cause a number of veterinary diseases like porcine gastroenteritis, avian infectious bronchitis and feline infectious peritonitis. The human pathogenic forms usually cause a mild upper respiratory tract infection (human corona virus – hCoV 229E). The culture requirements and cytopathic effect of the viral particles isolated from patients with SARS were distinct from the known pathogenic strains. Hence the infection was thought to be due to a novel corona virus. Since then, the viral genome has been sequenced and many rapid diagnostic kits are available [8]. Koch's postulates have also been proven by growth and isolation of the virus in cynomolgus macaques[9]. Preliminary research suggests that the SARS – associated coronavirus (SARSCoV) may have originated in small mammals like the Himalayan palm civet or in livestock (chicken or duck). Mutation may have then allowed its transmission to humans. The proximity in which humans and livestock exist in rural China could have aided this process.

Risk-Stratified Seroprevalence of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Among Children in Hong Kong

Severe acute respiratory syndrome was relatively mild in children, and the incidence was significantly lower when compared with adults. Although previous seroepidemiological studies demonstrated that asymptomatic infection was uncommon among health care workers and adult contacts of patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome, it is unclear whether this would extend to the pediatric population. The purpose of this study was to determine the seroprevalence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus among asymptomatic children living near Amoy Gardens (site of largest community outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome in Hong Kong) compared with a low-risk region where no community transmission occurred. The study was conducted from September to October 2003. Target subjects living in the defined high-risk and low-risk areas were approached through the schools within the respective localities. We recruited 353 and 361 children, respectively, from the high-risk and low-risk areas and collected 3 to 5 mL of blood for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus IgG antibody testing by immunofluorescence antibody assay and confirmation by neutralization test. Parents of all of the subjects who joined the study were contacted by telephone, and a standardized questionnaire was administered by a research nurse to collect information including sociodemographic data, history of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection in the subjects and members of the household, history of contact with known cases of severe acute respiratory syndrome, presence of severe acute respiratory syndrome-like symptoms since onset of the severe acute respiratory syndrome epidemic, travel history of the child and his/her relatives within the 15 days before any such symptom onset, use of health service as a result of such symptoms, and whether there were deaths of relatives as a result of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Two (0.57%) of 353 asymptomatic children from the high-risk area were tested positive for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus antibody compared with 0 of 361 in the low-risk region. None of the 14 children who lived in the high-risk area and had known contacts with severe acute respiratory syndrome patients were seropositive. As in adults, subclinical severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection was rare in children in the 2003 epidemic. The very low seroprevalence implies little or no population herd immunity to protect against future resurgence of severe acute respiratory syndrome.

Impact of Political Incidents, Financial Crises, and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome on Hong Kong Property Buyers

In this paper, the first part of our study, we use a linear statistical technique to examine the impact of the announcement of China's decision to take back Hong Kong from the United Kingdom in 1982, the Tiananmen Square incident of 4 June 1989, the Asian financial crisis (AFC) of 1997, and the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2003 on Hong Kong's housing market in terms of prices. A total of 11362 residential transactions from a cluster of data for a large private-housing estate, considered to be representative of Hong Kong's private residential market, were used to test four hypotheses that evaluate the impact of shocks on property prices through the use of a hedonic price model. The influences based on the statistical findings, which satisfy the relevant goodness-of-fit tests, are (a) that the sovereignty crisis exerted immediate significant negative price effect, but property prices rebounded after a big decline when open diplomatic dialogue between the Chinese and UK governments began, (b) that the Tiananmen Square (4 June) incident had no significant price effect; (c) that the AFC caused a drastic decline in property prices; and (d) that the impact of the SARS outbreak was significantly negative for Amoy Gardens but not so for estates with fewer reported SARS cases.

Numerical simulation of pressure and airflow response of building drainage ventilation systems

Identification of the under-performance of the building drainage and ventilation system as a significant contributor to the transmission of the SARS virus in the ‘Amoy Gardens’ outbreak has prompted a re-examination of the methods adopted to ensure appropriate network design, implementation and maintenance. The physical separation between the miasma present within drainage pipe work and the habitable space occupied by the building user is achieved primarily through the use of the (commonly water-based) appliance trap seal. Systems must therefore be designed such that the integrity of this seal is sustained throughout all user or system-imposed operating conditions. This paper focuses on the work of the authors in defining key simulation model components that facilitate the prediction of the pressure response of building drainage systems and that thus allow an assessment of trap seal integrity to reduce the risk of infection spread. The paper draws upon the empirically defined network characteristics and extensive site data that have, so far, been established independently by researchers in the UK, Japan and Taiwan. The paper identifies the congruency of resultant data, and highlights the potential benefits of pooling research resources such that the contribution of simulation techniques to forensic analysis of virus spread via building drainage systems is confirmed.

Industrial experience and research into the causes of SARS virus transmission in a high-rise residential housing estate in Hong Kong

The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) outbreak in 2003 triggered concerns regarding the ability of buildings to resist disease transmission. In particular, the outbreak that occurred in the high-rise residential blocks in the Amoy Gardens housing estate, sounded an alarm to the local practice of design, installation, commissioning, operation and maintenance of building services systems. Virus transmission through the vertical drainage stack is believed to have been one of the causes of disease transmission in Amoy Gardens. In this paper, the authors share their experiences and research findings on the building drainage system. The paper includes a review of the outbreak incident in Amoy Gardens; and of the observations and site measurements of foul air and water back flow in the drainage system of another vacant high-rise residential housing estate. In addition, tracer gas measurements were studied in order to verify the upwards flow of air in the vertical stack. These field studies allow comparisons between the gas flow from the drainage system to the living accommodation, and confirm the hypothesized infection route. Finally, the authors make recommendations on the proper design and operation of high-rise building drainage systems. Practical application: Sanitary drainage systems form a critical engineering component in maintaining hygienic conditions in buildings. In fact the issue has been addressed over several hundreds of years, for example during the Black Death outbreak worldwide. Despite this, the SARS outbreak demonstrates that there is still room for improvement on the safety of soil waste disposal in buildings. The findings in this paper shed light on the understanding of the outbreak in Hong Kong, and on the critical aspects to avoid performance failure in soil waste disposal.

Twenty-first century plague The story of SARS

Twenty-first century plague The story of SARS

SARS: How a global epidemic was stopped

The concern about emerging infectious diseases has been greatly increasing recently, especially with a rising threat of terrorism. There have been consecutive threats of emerging infectious diseases and periodical outbreaks of infectious diseases throughout the history. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) appeared as the first emerging and readily transmissible disease. At the same time, it was regarded as the first successfully controlled disease and showed that international collaboration is required to stop the spread. Last year, there was another threat of potential pandemic influenza, originating from avian influenza. Tension of bioterrorism has been increasing since the occurrence of anthrax terror in 2001. Preparedness is very emphasized because we do not know when or where and how emerging or reemerging infectious diseases will appear. This book is timely published at the time we stress the need for preparedness and it could be the cornerstone of preparedness. This book provides an overview of the SARS outbreak, microbiology of SARS virus, and clinical features of SARS. This book is not just a scientific publication, but also a kind of history book. This book is largely divided into two parts. The first part, the first three chapters, is designated for the history of SARS: it describes the global occurrence of SARS chronologically in detail and the global response. The spread of SARS and the response are reviewed country by country. This book contains unreported materials on how the disease started to spread in China, how it reached Hong Kong and what precisely happened at the Metropole Hotel. Readers can get information how SARS was transmitted from a patient to others including health care workers, from a hospital to hospitals and communities, and from one country to other countries on a timeline. The book also details how people reacted to SARS, how international researchers and officials worked collaboratively, how helpful Internet was in real-time sharing of information, and how the outbreak of SARS was controlled eventually. The distinguishing outbreaks, such as the outbreak at the Metropole Hotel or Amoy Gardens and through Flight CA112, are described separately. Readers can identify the successes and failures of the fight against SARS while reading the first part, and could be better prepared for future infectious diseases. The second part includes the science of SARS. Clinical features are extensively described based on all the published literature. Sporadic cases of SARS have been reported after the containment of SARS outbreak in 2003. A high index of suspicion is essential for the early diagnosis of SARS and prevention of outbreak, and the book provides enough information for clinical suspicion. The overview of the causative agent, SARS coronavirus, is provided in addition to a review of the microbiology of coronavirus. Owing to international cooperation of experts, the identification of the causative agent was possible within weeks from the outbreak. Furthermore, genetic analysis and laboratory diagnosis of SARS were accomplished in a short time. The capabilities and limitations of various methods of laboratory diagnostics of SARS and the current status of vaccine development are reviewed in detail. The hypothesis that SARS virus was transferred from animals to humans is summarized briefly, and this issue is still important in the prevention of reemergence of SARS and emergence of new diseases. The last part of this book is for the future preparedness, discussing the lessons learned from the SARS outbreak. Additionally, the extensive bibliography throughout this book would provide invaluable information for further interests. This book will serve an organized overview not only for health specialists or epidemiologists, but for anyone who wants to be better prepared for similar challenges of emerging infectious diseases in the future. In the past, the spread of new infectious diseases progressed gradually since people travelled by ships. However, SARS showed that new disease could spread globally through international flights within a matter of weeks. Avian influenza could easily progress to be pandemic if we are not better prepared than we were when SARS was unleashed. Preparedness is a hot issue and this book would be a basis of preparedness alert originating from the experience of SARS.

Viral Load and SARS Epidemiology in a High-Rise Apartment Complex

During the 2003 SARS epidemic, 321 residents of Hong Kong’s Amoy Gardens, a densely populated complex with 19 high-rise apartment blocks, developed

Viral Load Distribution in SARS Outbreak

An unprecedented community outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) occurred in the Amoy Gardens, a high-rise residential complex in Hong Kong. Droplet, air, contaminated fomites, and rodent pests have been proposed to be mechanisms for transmitting SARS in a short period. We studied nasopharyngeal viral load of SARS patients on admission and their geographic distribution. Higher nasopharyngeal viral load was found in patients living in adjacent units of the same block inhabited by the index patient, while a lower but detectable nasopharyngeal viral load was found in patients living further away from the index patient. This pattern of nasopharyngeal viral load suggested that airborne transmission played an important part in this outbreak in Hong Kong. Contaminated fomites and rodent pests may have also played a role.