American Time Use Survey Research Articles

Do immigrant women spend more time on unpaid labor? Generational differences by race, ethnicity, and household composition in household work within the United States

ABSTRACT Despite relative progress, it is an overt fact that women still take on the heavier burden of unpaid work in the household compared to men in the United States. Our study expands the horizons of previous studies by looking at women specifically and analyzes how women’s performance of unpaid labor differentiates based on various contexts such as generational status, household composition, race, and ethnicity. Using the pooled cross-sectional data from the 2011-2021 American Time Use Survey (ATUS), we test hypotheses derived from an absolute resources perspective and a structural perspective to examine migrant generational differences among married, cohabiting, and single women as well as investigate the intra-group differences of racial and ethnic groups. From our descriptive analysis and ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analyses, we find support for the structural perspective for housework, as the generational differences remain even after controlling for socioeconomic factors, but only for first-generation married women. However, socioeconomic factors account for the differences between cohabiting or single first-generation women, which is supported by the absolute resources perspective. Our intra-group analysis by racial and ethnic groups yielded similar findings but found that Hispanic and Asian first-generation women take on a larger proportion of housework, relative to later-generation women.

A Novel Time Use Approach on Daily Active Engagement with Life: The Intersectionality of Race and Gender.

Active engagement with life (AE) is an integral aspect of successful aging. Using time diary data, this study explored how U.S. older adults structure their daily lives involving social participation and productive engagement, and the extent to which these patterns differ by race and gender. We used American Time Use Survey (ATUS) data (n = 17,990) and sequence and cluster analyses to identify distinctive daily AE patterns. Multivariable linear regression models were used to evaluate associations between AE patterns and self-rated health, and the moderating roles of race and gender. Five AE clusters were identified: Low Degree of AE (26%), Moderate Unpaid Work & Light Social Participation (39%), Persistent Unpaid Work (20%), Persistent Paid Work (10%), and Persistent Social Participation (4%). White women were the most likely and Black men the least likely to have any AE. Compared to "Low Degree of AE", all other AE clusters were associated with better self-rated health, with these associations varying by gender and race. The strongest positive association was observed for "Persistent Paid Work", especially among women. Racial differences in the association between AE and health were more prominent among women than men. Differences by AE were less pronounced among Black women in comparison to White women. We found that the association between AE and self-rated health varies by race and gender. Persistent structural barriers may prevent older adults from historically minoritized backgrounds, particularly Black women, from benefiting from AE.

EOS: Impact Evaluation of Electric Vehicle Adoption on Peak Load Shaving Using Agent-Based Modeling

The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) by the general population creates an opportunity to deploy the energy storage capability of EVs for performing peak energy shaving in their households and ultimately in their neighborhood grid during surging demand. However, the impact of the adoption rate in a neighborhood might be counterbalanced by the energy demand of EVs during off-peak hours. Therefore, achieving optimal peak energy shaving is a product of a sensitive balancing process that depends on the EV adoption rate. In this paper, we propose EOS, an agent-based simulation model, to represent independent household energy usage and estimate the real-time neighborhood energy consumption and peak shaving energy amount of a neighborhood. This study uses Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS) and the American Time Use Survey (ATUS) data to model realistic real-time household energy use. We evaluate the impact of the EV adoption rates of a neighborhood on performing energy peak shaving during sudden energy surges. Our findings reveal these trade-offs and, specifically, a reduction of up to 30% of the peak neighborhood energy usage for the optimal neighborhood EV adoption rate in a 1089 household neighborhood.

Understanding the heterogeneous health effect of retirement by tracking daily activities

This paper estimates the heterogeneous effects of retirement on health and the allocation of time to various activities, utilizing the American Time Use Survey (ATUS) from 2003 to 2019. The early retirement age for Social Security is used as an instrument. The findings reveal distinct outcomes among different demographic groups. Notably, retirement has a positive impact on the health of high-educated women, while yielding non-significant or slight negative effects for other segments of the population. This disparity in health outcomes can be attributed to the role of sedentary activities. High-educated women tend to reduce their engagement in sedentary activities post-retirement, resulting in improved health outcomes, whereas other groups experience a significant increase in such activities. These divergent effects, observed across gender and education levels, provide valuable insights into understanding the mechanism regarding retirement’s impact on health.

The earned income tax credit (EITC) and time spent helping and caring for adults

AbstractThis is the first study to examine the effect of the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) on unpaid caregiving for adults, which could operate through the credit’s effects on labor supply and household income. Using a sample of unmarried mothers and data from the American Time Use Survey (ATUS), I employ a simulated benefit approach to generate causal estimates of the effect of EITC generosity on time use. I find that increases in average EITC benefits have differential effects on assisting adults by both the age of the EITC recipient and the relationship between the EITC recipient and the care recipient. No effect is estimated for the youngest group of unmarried mothers (ages 25–34), who increase employment without reducing time spent assisting adults. In contrast, the oldest group of unmarried mothers (ages 45–54) responds by increasing their propensity to assist their parents while maintaining their labor supply. Unmarried mothers aged 35–44 both increase their labor supply and spend more time assisting adult family members on the intensive margin, even as they are less likely to assist parents on the extensive margin, especially with chore help. Results for other types of time use (home production, leisure, childcare, education, sleep), as well as probability of multigenerational co-residence, help explain these shifts. For example, for the oldest group of unmarried mothers, increased co-residence with parents is estimated to occur and may facilitate this labor-caregiving balance. These results add to a growing body of evidence that the EITC affects recipients’ time allocation beyond paid work and that the effects of the EITC span across generations and households.

Socioeconomic factors influencing residential occupancy trends during and post COVID pandemic

The residential building sector accounts for 22% of end-use energy consumption in the United States. Despite the strong influence of occupants’ behavior on energy consumption patterns in residential buildings, the impact of households’ socioeconomic background on occupancy is not well understood in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic and its aftermath. This study aims to analyze the changes in occupancy patterns of residential buildings in the United States during and after the pandemic (2020–2022) using 14 socioeconomic variables. The American Time Use Survey (ATUS) data are used to define occupancy patterns; then correlation and regression analyses are applied to determine the most significant variables impacting the hours when members are at home. Results suggest employment status and household income level are the most significant variables predicting hours at home. Those under 25 years of age, low-income households, unemployed, and those identifying as Hispanic have most quickly returned to prepandemic (2018–2019) occupancy patterns. The results indicate that post pandemic (2022), occupancy patterns continue to change for those under 55, employed, and middle- and high-income groups, and thus must be monitored moving forward as they continue to evolve. These results are critical to help support ongoing electrification of homes and decarbonization of the electric grid.

Temporal and Racial/Ethnic Patterns of Social Engagement among Older Adults: Evidence from American Time Use Survey 2019 to 2022.

This study examines temporal and racial/ethnic patterns in social engagement among older adults from 2019 to 2022, using data from the American Time Use Survey (ATUS) for adults aged 60 and older (n = 13,605). Social engagement was operationalized as time spent on five activities in in-home and out-of-home settings. Descriptive analysis was used to characterize temporal trends of social engagement, and zero-inflated negative binomial regression was utilized to estimate year-specific racial/ethnic differences. Results indicate an initial decline in out-of-home social engagement, followed by a gradual recovery. Racial differences in social engagement became salient during the pandemic period. The evolving racial and ethnic patterns in social engagement underscore the challenges that Black and Hispanic older adults faced during the public health crisis. Understanding activity patterns specific to racial/ethnic groups has implications for targeted interventions, informing strategies to support Black, Hispanic, and other minoritized older adults in public health emergencies.

Home alone: Evaluating the implications of government mandates and disease prevalence on time usage during the pandemic

During the COVID-19 pandemic governments and individuals alike faced incentives to limit the spread of the disease. Our objective is to assess the extent to which government mandates and private actions influenced time allocated to specific activities and the social interactions of individuals. Information on how individuals spent their time before and during the early stages of the pandemic come from the American Time Use Survey (ATUS), which identifies time use for a 24-hour period and includes each individual's activities, locations and companions. We combine the time diary data with data on state-level restrictions from the Kaiser Family Foundation and state-level COVID-19 infection and death rates from Johns Hopkins University. Our findings suggest that private actions in response to reported death rates are comparable to the effects of state-level public mandates on the outcome variables of time alone and time at home. In evaluating effects based on sex and age, we find that young males experienced the largest disruption in time use, significantly changing both their location and their companions. We also find important age profile differences between males and females.

Evaluating Non-response Rates and Bias in the American Time Use Survey

This paper investigates the ongoing issue of non-response in the American Time Use Survey (ATUS) and its impact on the survey's reliability and representativeness. Despite targeted efforts, ATUS has experienced a consistent decrease in response rates, which was exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic. This decreasing response rate may link to potential non-response bias, which could distort the survey's depiction of time use patterns across the U.S. population. The study analyzes the complexities associated with non-response rates, emphasizing biases that might emerge from groups with weaker community ties. Challenging traditional assumptions, recent research indicates that high response rates do not automatically mitigate bias. This paper highlights the necessity for innovative survey methods and the adoption of new technologies, such as web-administered diaries and smartphone apps, to address these issues. The analysis underscores the importance of adapting survey strategies to contemporary societal and technological landscapes, aiming to enhance the accuracy, efficiency, and representativeness of ATUS data.

Long-term effects of COVID-19 on time allocation, travel behavior, and shopping habits in the United States

BackgroundExtensive research explored the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on our daily life. Nevertheless, few of them examined its long-term effects which are more complex and profound. Within this context, we investigate the lasting impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on individuals' time allocation, travel behavior, and purchasing habits based on the American Time Use Survey (ATUS) datasets from 2019 to 2022, covering both the pre-epidemic stage and the post-vaccination era. MethodsSpecifically, this study considers activity and travel durations and frequencies, as well as a fragmentation indicator, the travel time ratio (TTR), and the Gini index of travel modes, to determine if COVID-19 altered our daily schedules with possibly long term impacts on daily behavior. Results and conclusionThe results indicate that Americans were less active participating in outdoor activities or traveling during the pandemic and did not revert to pre-pandemic levels in 2022. Additionally, comparing the post-vaccination period to the pre-pandemic period, participants devoted more time to active transportation (such as walking and bicycling), and public transportation. Meanwhile, the duration of online purchases in United States (US) increased. Unlike previous studies that primarily focused on a single aspect in a single year, our analysis provides a more comprehensive framework for better understanding the long-term effects of COVID-19.

Does Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Explain Volunteer Time Allocations? An Exploration of Motivational Time Allowances Using the American Time Use Survey

This study examines whether there is an optimal set point along Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs associated with disaggregated forms of volunteerism. Taniguchi’s (2012) study examined major life domains (e.g., work, education, and religion) for associations with formal and informal volunteerism. An alternative approach is to include life domains with variables measuring motivational concerns to better identify time allocation patterns for disaggregated volunteerism. This study analyzed the results of 9,435 time diaries recorded on the 2019 American Time Use Survey (ATUS). The time allocated to formal and informal volunteerism associates with intermediate belongingness concerns. There is no association between time spent on self-esteem and self-actualization concerns and informal volunteering. Tertiary education as a baseline measure for self-actualization shares a weaker association than belonging with formal volunteering. The data suggest that research into maximizing formal volunteerism may be searching at the wrong point at self-actualization. Implications are discussed for motivating volunteerism.

Overeducation and childcare time

PurposeResearch shows that parental employment and education status affect the amount of parental childcare time, which is a fundamental determinant of children's outcomes. In this paper, the authors study whether being overeducated – working in a job that requires less education than the level of education acquired – is related to the time parents devote to their children.Design/methodology/approachThe authors set two main hypotheses. First, overeducation might lead to more childcare time if being overeducated is the result of the individual prioritizing family over career. Second, overeducation might lead to less childcare time if overeducation is the result of lower ability. The authors estimate time use equations using the American Time Use Survey (ATUS) from 2004 to 2019.FindingsThe authors find that overeducated parents devote less time to childcare than matched parents, especially in the weekend sample. The authors’ results suggest that overeducation is not a deliberate choice prioritizing family over career.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study on the implications of being overeducated on childcare.

Who's minding the children: Gender equity in the first 2 years of the pandemic

AbstractThe wholesale changes brought about by the COVID‐19 pandemic to men and women's paid work arrangements and work–family balance provide a natural experiment for testing the common elements of two theories, needs exposure (Schafer et al. Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue Canadienne De Sociologie, 57(4);2020:523–549) and parental proximity (Sullivan et al. Family Theory & Review, 2018;10(1):263–279) against a third theory also suggested by Schafer et al. (2020), and labelled in this article, entrenchment/exacerbation of gender inequality. Both needs exposure and parental proximity suggest that by being home because of the pandemic, in proximity to their children, fathers are exposed to new and enduring family needs, which may move them toward more equal sharing in childcare and other domestic responsibilities. By contrast to studies that have tested such theories using retrospective, self‐report survey data over a 2‐year period, we analyse more than a decade of time‐use diary data from the American Time Use Survey (ATUS) that covers the first 2 years of the pandemic. We model the secular and quarterly trends to predict what would have occurred in the absence of the pandemic, contrasting this to what indeed happened. Our analyses consider aggregate and individual impacts, using methods of sequence analysis, clustering, and matching. Among our results, we find that the division of childcare responsibilities did not become more equitable during the pandemic. Suggestions for future research are provided as are suggestions for the implementation of social policies that could influence greater gender equity in unpaid work and childcare.

Active commuting and the health of workers

IntroductionResearch has shown that commuting is related to the health of workers, and that mode choice may have a range of effects on this relationship. We analyze the relationship between active commuting (walking and cycling) and the health status reported by US workers. MethodsWe use the 2014–2016 Eating and Health (EH) Module of the American Time Use Survey (ATUS). We estimate Ordinary Least Squares models on a measure of subjective health that is the self-reported assessment of individual general health status, and on the body mass index. Resultslonger commutes by bicycle are significantly related to higher levels of subjective health and to lower body mass index, while commuting by walking is only weakly related to both health measures. We test the robustness of our results to possible measurement error in commuting times, to the exclusion of compensating factors, to the estimation method, and to the inclusion of time devoted to leisure-based physical activities. ConclusionsOur results may help policy makers in evaluating the importance of infrastructures that facilitate the use of bicycles as a means of transport, boosting investment in these infrastructures, especially in larger cities.

Socialization, Relaxation, and Leisure across the Day by Social Determinants of Health: Results from the American Time Use Survey, 2014-2016.

This study used the American Time Use Survey (ATUS) to examine socialization, relaxation, and leisure activities throughout the day as related to social determinants of health (SDOH). The study population was adults aged 25 years and older who participated in the ATUS in 2014-2016, the most recent years for collecting SDOH. Descriptive analyses provide characteristics of the study population. Graphical analyses display socialization by SDOH across the hours of the day based on adjusted regression models. Quasi-binomial models analyzed the association between the numbers of minutes of various activities and SDOH. Associations between SDOH and sleeplessness (yes or no) were explored using logistic regression. For much of the day, being female, having less education, living in poverty, and having food insecurity were associated with more time socializing and relaxing. The major activities under socializing and relaxation are watching television and movies. Having a college degree was strongly associated with increased minutes of sports activity, whereas living in poverty and food insecurity were associated with fewer minutes. Less education, living in poverty, and having food insecurity were associated with sleeplessness. A possible mechanism of the effects of SODH on health is by its altering of the patterns of daily life.

Analysis of Changes in Time Use and Activity Participation in Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic in the United States: Implications for Well-Being

This research aims to investigate the well-being implications of changes in activity-travel and time-use patterns brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic. The study uses American Time Use Survey (ATUS) data from 2019 and 2020 to assess changes in activity-travel and time-use patterns. It applies two methods—a well-being scoring method and a time-poverty analysis method—to evaluate the impacts of these changes on society. The results show that individuals experienced diminished well-being during the pandemic even when their time-poverty statistics showed an improvement; this is because the pandemic did not allow individuals to pursue activities in a way that would enhance well-being. In general, well-being is positively associated with the pursuit of discretionary activities in the company of others in favored out-of-home locations. This explains why people have rapidly embraced traveling again in a post-pandemic era. At the same time, people desire more discretionary time (less time poverty); because the elimination of the commute contributes to this, workers are reluctant to return fully to the workplace. Planning processes need to account for a new normal in which activity-travel patterns will be increasingly shaped by the human desire to accumulate positive life experiences.

The impact of COVID-19 on work from home of ethnic groups in the USA: evidence from time-use data

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to analyze the impact of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic on participation and time allocated to work from home (WFH) by ethnic/racial group.Design/methodology/approachThe authors employ USA time-use data [American Time Use Survey (ATUS)] for the 2017–2020 period and a parametric approach in their analysis.FindingsEstimates show that the time allocated to WFH increased during COVID-19, especially for women. This increase is likely driven by more workers shifting to WFH (higher participation) rather than by longer hours worked by those who already teleworked. The authors also find relevant differences in the impact of COVID-19 on WFH by ethnic/racial group. Among ethnic/racial groups, only Asians increased WFH compared to White Americans. Within this ethnic group, the authors find significant differences across genders. Asian men increased participation in WFH, whereas Asian women increased both participation and hours worked, compared to White American women. Differences in this racial/ethnic group could be explained by previous research, which demonstrates a higher ability of Asians to perform job tasks remotely. However, this finding could also be attributed to an increase in discrimination during the COVID-19 pandemic.Originality/valueThis paper contributes to the recent and limited literature exploring the heterogeneous impact of COVID-19 on participation and time allocated to WFH by ethnic/racial group. Understanding the mechanisms driving vulnerable populations' abilities to work during socioeconomic downturns is of high policy importance.

Associating Health-Related Quality-of-Life Score with Time Uses to Inform Productivity Measures in Cost-Effectiveness Analysis.

The Second Panel on Cost Effectiveness in Health and Medicine recommended that cost-effectiveness analyses (CEA) explicitly incorporate the valuation of productive time from a societal perspective. We developed a new approach to capture productivity impacts in CEA without direct evidence on these impacts by associating varying levels of health-related quality-of-life (HrQoL) score with different time uses in the United States. We conceptualized a framework that estimates the association between HrQoL score with productivity through time uses. We used the American Time-Use Survey (ATUS) from year 2012-2013, when data on a Well-Being Module (WBM) was additionally collected alongside ATUS. The WBM measured the quality of life (QoL) score using a visual analog scale. To operationalize our conceptual framework, we employed an econometric approach that addressed three technical issues in the observed data: (i) distinction between overall QoL and HrQoL, (ii) correlation across different categories of time use and the share structure of time-use data, and (iii) reverse causality between time uses and HrQoL score in a cross-sectional setting. Furthermore, we developed a metamodel-based algorithm to summarize the numerous estimates from the primary econometric model efficiently. Finally, we illustrated the use of our algorithm to calculate productivity and time spent seeking care costs in an empirical CEA of aprostate cancer treatment. We provide the estimates of the metamodel algorithm. Incorporating these estimates into the empirical CEA reduced the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio by 27%. Our estimates can facilitate the inclusion of productivity and time spent seeking care in CEA as recommended by the Second Panel.

Aggregate residential demand flexibility behavior: A novel assessment framework

Residential demand flexibility (DF) could save the U.S. electric grid up to 10 GW of peak demand while supporting increased amounts of renewable generation. However, less than 40% of the estimated DF peak reduction capacity is currently realized, and less than 8% of American households are enrolled. These low participation rates are combined with high rates of “overriding” a DF event and eventual opt-outs among enrolled customers. There is still not a comprehensive understanding of the drivers of DF participation and occupant interaction with DF program signals. We, therefore, present a novel survey processing framework to assess occupant DF-relevant behavior from the American Time Use Survey (ATUS). Using the framework, we summarize both the extensive and intensive behavior of more than 200,000 ATUS respondents (2003–2018 data) and provide insights on the DF-relevant behavior of residential occupants, which is generally overlooked in the literature. We use the framework to identify the activity priorities of residential occupants in the United States during different DF-relevant periods (critical peak, peak, and off-peak). These preferred activities capture overlooked routine behaviors that could be barriers to DF participation, if ignored, and might explain the high levels of overrides often exhibited by participants of demand response.

Feasibility of Using the American Time Use Survey to Study the Impact of Sickle Cell Disease and Hematopoietic Cell Transplant on the Daily Lives of Patients and Their Caregivers: A Stellar Study

Introduction Sickle cell disease (SCD) is associated with substantial morbidity, impaired health-related quality of life (HRQoL), and decreased survival. While, hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) for SCD, is associated with excellent overall and event-free survival, however, there are limited studies in this population to assess the ability to participate in social roles and level of economic productivity. The American Time Use Survey (ATUS) was designed to provide a comprehensive measure of the amount of time people spend doing various daily activities in the United States. We performed a pilot study using ATUS in post-transplanted SCD patients, parent proxies, and non-transplanted patients. Methods Patients ≥15 years old or one caregiver for patients ≤ 15yrs with SCD including those ³1-year post-HCT already enrolled in the parent Sickle Cell Transplant Evaluation of Long-term and Late Effects Registry (STELLAR) study were contacted for this sub-study. After providing informed consent, participants were contacted to schedule an interview. The survey was conducted using a computer assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) platform (Voxco). During the interview, participants were asked how they spent the 24 hours beginning 4 AM the day before the call, their "designated day," and ending 4 AM the day of the call. Each reported activity was assigned a 6-digit code, with 85 possible activities grouped into 6 specified main categories related to health, education, work, work-related travel, household activities and time spent caring for children. Data collection, coding of the data, coding rules, verification, data processing, edits, imputation, data quality, and coding quality were determined by the ATUS user guide. Results Of the 133 participants in the STELLAR study, 34 participants (25%, Adult post-HCT Patients = 9, Caregivers for Post-HCT and Non-HCT patients = 15, and non-transplanted adult SCD patients = 10) completed the ATUS interview. The interviews lasted 28 minutes (median; range 20-58min). Sixty-one percent of participants were female, 86% were African-American, and 55% were working, of whom 80% were working 35 hours or more a week (Table 1). Details of time spent on specific activities are presented in Figure 1. Seven participants (21%) reported spending a mean 47 minutes (SD 25.80, Median 45, range 5-75 IQR 50) in direct health-related self-care, 8 participants (24%) reported mean 138.13 minutes (SD 111.64, Median 97.5, range 15-330 IQR 162) in education related activities, 17 participants (55%) reported mean 337.53 minutes (SD 225.91, Median 450, range 30-630 IQR 420) in work-related activities. Conclusion We report the feasibility of using ATUS in SCD populations to study the impact of SCD on the daily lives and economic productivity of patients and/or caregivers. The relatively high rates of unemployment and time spent in health-related personal care activities observed in this sample are worthy of further study. Figure 1View largeDownload PPTFigure 1View largeDownload PPT Close modal