American Sources Research Articles

A Unified Canon? Latin American Graduate Training in Comparative Politics

ABSTRACT In Latin American comparative politics, a tension exists between North Americanization and parochialism. While certain academic scholarship is published in Scopus-indexed journals that engage with “mainstream” Global North literature, other works are found in non-indexed outlets, focusing solely on their home countries and fostering parochial scientific communities. To assess this tension in graduate program curricula, we compiled an original dataset of comparative politics readings from 21 universities across nine Latin American countries. Our network analysis reveals a centralized structure influenced by mainstream readings, challenging the expectation of parochialism. In addition to the mainstream content, universities tend to incorporate readings from regional journals to facilitate cross-case comparisons. However, these materials are inconsistently shared, resulting in fragmentation of content from Latin American sources. Our findings contribute to and challenge the North Americanization versus parochialism debate, showing that future scholars receive similar mainstream training but encounter diverse regional materials during their PhD studies.

The Chinese Ear Shenmen Point and the French Cosmonaut Point: Same or Different?

The Shenmen Point is an auricular acupuncture point that is also known in France as the Cosmonaut Point. It is widely utilized therapeutically for its property of reducing stress. In some ways it is a controversial point. Differences of opinion exist regarding the most appropriate name of the point, who discovered it first, its location within the triangular fossa, its best method of detection, its best method of stimulation, its actions, its indications, its contraindications, its therapeutic effects, and even its very existence. Furthermore, given the extent of controversy concerning the Shenmen and Cosmonaut points, one may reasonably question if they represent the same point, or two separate points. The aim of this report will be to review the similarities and differences of opinion regarding the Shenmen and Cosmonaut points, drawing mainly from French, German, Chinese, and American sources. The clinical implications of these comparisons will be summarized.

Policy Entrepreneur or Policy Implementer? The Role of İhsan Sabri Çağlayangil in Türkiye’s Distancing from the United States in the 1960s and 1970s

In this study, it is attempted to understand the influence of İhsan Sabri Çağlayangil, as the minister of foreign affairs, on Türkiye’s relations with the United States (US). In the years he served as the minister, from mid-1960s to mid-1970s, Türkiye witnessed a fundamental change in Türkiye’s huge commitments to and trust in Washington. To question his role as an individual in these developments is expected to contribute to studying and analyzing Turkish-American relations in historical perspective. The study makes use of primary sources like official archives, parliamentary records, memoirs and interviews provided by both Turkish and American circles as well as some scholarly works on Çağlayangil himself and Turkish foreign policy in general. The findings derived from Turkish and American sources are compared with each other and it is concluded that the alteration in Türkiye’s close ties with the US at those times was mostly driven by the changing perception of Turkish state and public about the US following its unacceptable disregard for Türkiye’s national interests. In addition to having the detente process in international relations as a facilitator to hold a more balanced stance towards the US, this process was not initiated by Çağlayangil’s innovation or efforts, and instead was a state-policy that emerged as a result of some structural and principle changes.

Anti-vaccine COVID-19 narratives: A critical textual analysis of American and Indonesian online news

This study utilized Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), grounded in Van Dijk’s framework to investigate how online news articles from American and Indonesian outlets portrayed anti-vaccine views related to COVID-19. Through systematic online searches, the research examined the data through the lenses of macrostructure, superstructure, and microstructure. Eight articles were selected for this study: four from American sources and four from Indonesian sources. The selected articles were published during specific periods: February 2022 to February 2023 for the U.S., and January 2021 to January 2022 for Indonesia. These articles, ranging from 500 to 1500 words, focused on ‘Anti-Vaccine COVID-19’ topics. The findings revealed distinct thematic differences. The macrostructure analysis showed that American articles highlighted distrust in specific vaccines and opposition to mandates, fostering skepticism, while Indonesian articles examined a wider range of cultural, religious, and personal factors influencing vaccine hesitancy, including anti-vaccine sentiments among expatriates and athletes. The superstructure analysis indicated that American reports emphasized controversy, whereas Indonesian reports explored motivations more deeply. Additionally, linguistic choices in the microstructure influenced portrayals, with American articles using dysphemism and active voice to emphasize danger, while Indonesian articles employed strong language to convey diverse perspectives. Despite its emphasis on textual analysis, this study offered significant insights into the sophisticated discussions of anti-vaccine sentiments in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, as reflected in American and Indonesian online news.

Patagonian dust, Agulhas Current, and Antarctic ice-rafted debris contributions to the South Atlantic Ocean over the past 150,000 years

Disentangling inputs of aeolian dust, ice-rafted debris (IRD), and eroded continental detritus delivered by ocean currents to marine sediments provide important insights into Earth System processes and climate. This study uses Sr-Nd-Pb isotope ratios of the continent-derived (lithogenic) fraction in deep-sea core TN057-6 from the subantarctic Southern Ocean southwest of Africa over the past 150,000 y to identify source regions and quantify their relative contributions and fluxes utilizing a mixing model set in a Bayesian framework. The data are compared with proxies from parallel core Ocean Drilling Program Site 1090 and newly presented data from potential South America aeolian dust source areas (PSAs), allowing for an integrated investigation into atmospheric, oceanic, and cryospheric dynamics. PSA inputs varied on glacial/interglacial timescales, with southern South American sources dominating up to 88% of the lithogenic fraction (mainly Patagonia, which provided up to 68%) during cold periods, while southern African sources were more important during interglacials. During the warmer Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 3 of the last glacial period, lithogenic fluxes were twice that of colder MIS2 and MIS4 at times, and showed unique isotope ratios best explained by Antarctic-derived IRD, likely from the Weddell Sea. The IRD intrusions contributed up to 41% at times and followed Antarctic millennial warming events that raised temperatures, causing instability of icesheet margins. High IRD was synchronous with increased bioavailable iron, nutrient utilization, high biological productivity, and decreased atmospheric CO2. Overall, TN057-6 sediments record systematic Southern Hemisphere climate shifts and cryospheric changes that impacted biogeochemical cycling on both glacial/interglacial and subglacial timescales.

Infections in residents of long- term care facilities in southern Poland, 12-month surveillance preliminary results

Long-Term Care Facility (LTCF) residents are particularly vulnerable to infections due to factors such as advanced age, co-morbidities, and regular medication use. Data from American and European sources indicate an anticipated occurrence rate of 2 to 11 infections per 1000 patient-days (pds) in LTCFs. The incidence rate of Clostridioides difficile infections (CDI) is reported at 0.52 per 10,000 resident days. The research objectives aimed to assess infection epidemiology in Polish LTCFs. An observational prospective study was conducted on residents from five LTCFs (2 residential homes and 3 nursing homes) in southern Poland between September 2022 and September 2023, utilizing the definition from the pan-European HALT study. The study received approval from the Bioethics Committee of the JU (1072.6120.73.2022) and was funded by the Polish NCN grant No.2021/41/B/NZ6/00749. CDI was defined by positive toxins A and B enzyme immunoassays (EIA) and positive glutamate dehydrogenase (DHA) EIA. Results from the study, involving 250 residents, revealed 157 cases of Healthcare-Associated Infections (HAIs) excluding gastrointestinal and CDI, with an incidence rate of 1.97/1000 pds. Lower respiratory tract infections dominated with 77 cases, including 36 pneumonia cases (47%). Additionally, 25 cases of gastrointestinal infections were reported, including only 7 CDI cases, resulting in an incidence rate of 0.88 CDI per 10,000 pds. Norovirus was detected in only one case, while the microbiological results were negative in the remaining cases. The incidence rate among Polish LTCF residents was lower than expected, contrasting with the CDI incidence that aligned with other research findings. Notably, the etiology of diarrhea remained undetermined in 68% of cases.

Black Epistemologies and Music: A Dialogue with Emicida's Sobre crianças, quadris, pesadelos e lições de casa

Abstract: The arts have consistently been interlocutors for Black scholarship in the humanities. Poetry, literature, and music are sources of knowledge for theorizing social realities. This relates to two elements: (a) an epistemology that values the production and spread of oral, subjective, and aesthetic forms of knowledge; (b) the systematic exclusion of Black people from academic spaces, especially in Latin American contexts, which encourages alternative practices of reflection and registry. Many artists actively consider what is produced in the cultural margins to be a strong locus of political and intellectual creativity. In Brazil, the rapper Emicida has been trying to make his artistic projects catalysts for philosophical reflection. His album Sobre crianças, quadris, pesadelos e lições de casa resonates with Asian, African, Black Atlantic, and Latin American sources of knowledge including religious practices, pop culture, and philosophy. It discusses themes such as love, race, racism, history, family, environmental crisis, and work relations through the combination of musical styles from Brazil, specifically, and the Black Atlantic, more generally. This article establishes a dialogue with the theories and debates suggested by this album, thus situating its contribution to Black scholarship and epistemology.

The Australian Constitutional Framers and the Languages of Virtue

The historiography of the political concept of virtue has been dominated by examinations of western European and North American sources. This article aims to widen the historical scope for our understanding of the influence of the concept of political virtue by examining how Anglophone conceptions of virtue were employed by the framers of the Australian Constitution during the Federation debates and the impact of those conceptions on the Constitution itself. It examines the strands of thought that provided the backdrop for the colonial adoption of the Victorian‐era British conception of political virtue, subsequently showing how the Australian constitutional framers adopted these languages and concepts in their own writings and speeches. The Australian framers were concerned with the virtue of both the people and their political leaders, applying this concern in their contributions to legal and political discourse in the latter part of the nineteenth century. However, rather than a direct transfer of the more typical languages of republican virtue, the colonial context examined here offers evidence of a shift of emphasis from virtue into the concept of “character”. The framers demonstrated an interest in the question of character as they wrote and deliberated around the constitutional problems of political parties, bicameralism, and responsible government. So, too, they showed an acute concern for the importance of character in their institutional designs for a future federal commonwealth. This article demonstrates that the framers existed within the tradition of thought which held virtue, or character, to be central to the vitality of the polity, and that the framers adapted that language in their deliberations and the institutional design of the Constitution.

Modern Japanese Images of Turks and Turkey

Modern Japanese Images of Turks and Turkey Nobuo Misawa (Toyo University, Japan) The image of Turks and Turkey in Modern Japan had been heavily influenced by the image of European and American sources described in this paper. For example, even after 1924, the Japanese merchants and officers of various ministries continued to adopt the divisions of European Turkey and Asiatic Turkey. We can find examples in the bulletin of the Japanese Commercial Museum in Istanbul, published in 1928- 37. The Museum still calculated and sent the statistics of imports and exports about Turkey, not as a single country but divided into two divisions, European Turkey and Asiatic Turkey, even after the establishment of the Republic of Turkey! It was only after the Japanese defeat in WWII in 1945, that Japan adopted a single name and area concept of Turkey. In addition, the Ministry of Education ordered the government’s official textbook writers to describe the name of the country as the Ottoman Empire (1299-1922) and the Republic of Turkey (1923- ). In these circumstances, private publications had begun to follow the government’s official textbooks, while some of them still used the outdated name, “Ottoman Turkey”, which neither the Europeans nor the Americans were no longer using.

Штурманский морской англо-русский словарь как часть «Курса кораблевождения»

The artilce considers the English-Russian Navigation dictionary in the context of its creation. The dictionary evolved from a small appendix to a textbook into a separate edition, which is a part of a multi-volume Marine Navigation Course. The Navigation Dictionary as part of the Marine Navigation Course ed. by Yakov Lapushkin was published twice: in 1947 by Nikolay Rybakov and in 1960 by Tamara Rutkovskaya. The representatives of the professional naval, academic, and scientific community, including the well-known lexicographer Alexander Taube, contributed to this dictionary. A comparative analysis of the sources shows the continuity between these dictionaries in their content, design and structure. The demand for the new 1960 version was explained by a rapid scientific and technological progress, as well as by the requirements to take into account not only British, but also American sources due to the increasing role of the United States in the navigation in this period. The need to create a navigation dictionary, including both special terminology and basic commands, was justified in the textbooks by Nikolay Rybakov, and in the preface to the dictionary by Tamara Rutkovskaya by the role that this language played in professional naval communication. Navigators needed a modern English-Russian dictionary that could be used for reading foreign manuals, for communication with pilots; such professional skills should have been obtained in the course of studies. Nowadays, old dictionaries compiled scores of years ago, remain a valuable source of information on the history of the Russian scientific and technical thought and professional communication.

ПОЛІТИКА АДМІНІСТРАЦІЇ ПРЕЗИДЕНТА США ДЖ. БАЙДЕНА ЩОДО ВІЙНИ В ГАЗІ: ВИКЛИКИ, ПРІОРИТЕТИ, ЗАВДАННЯ

The aim of the article is a comprehensive analysis of the foreign policy course of U.S. President J. Biden’s administration regarding the war in Gaza. The article examines the formation of principled positions by the American president and his team regarding the war in Gaza in the context of preventing the spread of hostilities to the entire region of the Middle East, the post-war fate of Gaza and the need to implement a two-state solution to the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, prospects for resuming the process of normalization of relations between Israel and Arab countries. Research methods include a set of general and special research methods, including systematic and comparative analysis, methods of critical analysis of sources. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the fact that its author was one of the first in Ukrainian historiography to make a systematic analysis of the foreign policy course of US President J. Biden’s administration regarding the war in Gaza. The study was conducted in the context of war challenges and risks and in view of the next presidential election in the United States in November 2024. Special attention is paid to introducing the latest American, Israeli and Arab sources into scientific circulation. The author concludes that there is a close relationship between the war in Gaza and the Russian aggression against Ukraine, which allowed Biden to combine these two problems into one package of actions. The author of the article also distinguishes two stages in the implementation of the policy of the US President J. Biden’s administration regarding the war in Gaza. The first stage (October – December 2023) is marked by the formation of the main principles and directions of this policy, realizing that the main condition for resolving the long-term Palestinian-Israeli conflict is the creation of an independent Palestinian state. Its second stage (January 2024 – until now) is characterized by working out the ways of radical transformation of Gaza in the post-war period, with the financial help of the Arab monarchies.

Analysis of the correlation between land use and surface runoff in a Brazilian savanna basin

– Since the 1980s, the Brazilian savanna (Cerrado) has been suppressed to make space for agricultural production, mainly soybean, corn, and cotton. This savanna strategically contains important South American river sources – Paraná, Paraguai, São Francisco, Araguaia, Tocantins, and tributaries of the Amazon River. Land use and cover are conditioning factors in generating the hydrological cycle components, notably surface runoff. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate spatial and temporal land use changes and their correlations with surface runoff in the Grande River basin. The study area is a relevant São Francisco River sub-basin, covering part of the Urucuia Aquifer System, encompassing the dry forest and savanna biomes. The inputs included landscape ecology metrics, land use time series from 1990 to 2020, and water flow values near the basin outlet. The landscape metrics were modeled with the R software landscapemetrics package. Aside from the time series trend, the correlation between land use, land cover, and flow variations was also evaluated through statistical tests – Mann-Kendall, Sen's slope, Pittitt, and rho Spearman. Changes were observed in areas covered by forest, savanna, and grassland formations. The areas presented reduction from 22,121 km2, 27,889 km2, and 15,366 km2 to 9916 km2, 27,870 km2, and 5666 km2, respectively. On the other hand, there was an increase, especially in rainfed agriculture (from 5241 km2 to 20,856 km2) and, more recently (2005), in irrigated agriculture (from 94 km2 to 1362 km2). Results show a reduction in the fragments of native vegetation (from 2,235 km2 to 1794 km2) and an increase in the fragments of agricultural activities (from 678 km2 to 1081 km2). For most classes, the change point was identified as the year 2005. A strong direct correlation was observed between the average and minimum flows (Q90) with forest and grassland formations. In comparison, an inverse correlation was noticed between pasture, urban infrastructure, rainfed agriculture, and irrigated agriculture classes.

Teaching Christian Ethics Beyond Europe and North America: From a Postgraduate Research Seminar to a Theology of Listening

This article explores the process of teaching Christian theological ethics beyond the common focus on European and North American sources. In conversation with moves to decolonise university curricula, the article proposes a theology of listening, an example of a research seminar for master’s and doctoral students at the University of Aberdeen on Christian ethics beyond Europe and North America, and an exploration of broader challenges for the formation of the theologian. The article asks, what can we learn when we give up power and control when teaching and learning theology? How can we shift our methods of knowing and practising theology? We write as theologians from India, Mexico, and the United States living in the United Kingdom. We reflect on forms of exclusion in theological method and formation that arise from colonising, systemic violence, and inequalities. The article considers intercultural challenges when encountering different methods of reflection on the Christian experience. In a search for a more profoundly theological approach, we propose listening to the other as integral to doing theology. In an intercultural move, we draw on Dietrich Bonhoeffer's theology of listening, proposing that theology must be an advent of voices from beyond our usual places and methods.

Transformation of tradition in Kenzo Tange’s projects as a way of shaping contemporary Japanese architecture

This study explored the transformation of tradition in contemporary Japanese architecture, with a focus on Kenzo Tange’s works as a potential solution to the lack of national identity in modern urban spaces, particularly prevalent in post-socialist countries. Such homogenisation, as established by previous research, has negative implications for human psychology. The purpose of this study was to identify K. Tange’s creative approach to the use of tradition in the context of modernity. Ukrainian, Japanese, English, American, and other sources on the history of traditional and modern architecture in Japan, including the theoretical achievements of K. Tange himself and several sources on the architect’s works, were used in the study. A considerable amount of photographic material was also collected for the study. The paper described certain types of traditional religious architecture in Japan. The architecture of Shinto and Buddhism were considered as prototypes. Accordingly, the following objects of K. Tange were analysed: The Peace Memorial Museum in Hiroshima, in comparison with the Ise Shrine Complex; Kurashiki Town Hall in comparison with the main pavilion of the Buddhist temple complex; the Kagawa Prefecture Government Office Building in Takamatsu in comparison with the Buddhist wooden pagoda. As a result, it was found that the transformation of tradition in K. Tange’s works can occur at four levels: the organisation of the master plan, the formation of the interior space of the building, the formation of its overall structure, and at the level of semantics. For each example of transformation, appropriate references were made to certain features of Japanese architecture or traditional Japanese worldview that were discovered during the study. In addition, an algorithm for introducing traditional features into modern architecture was presented, which, given the need to rebuild Ukrainian cities destroyed as of 2023, could help revive them while avoiding the architectural shortcomings of the past

Development and validation of a CT-based deep learning algorithm to augment non-invasive diagnosis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

RationaleNon-invasive diagnosis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) involves identification of usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP) pattern by computed tomography (CT) and exclusion of other known etiologies of interstitial lung disease (ILD). However, uncertainty in identification of radiologic UIP pattern leads to the continued need for invasive surgical biopsy. We thus developed and validated a machine learning algorithm using CT scans alone to augment non-invasive diagnosis of IPF. MethodsThe primary algorithm was a deep learning convolutional neural network (CNN) with model inputs of CT images only. The algorithm was trained to predict IPF among cases of ILD, with reference standard of multidisciplinary discussion (MDD) consensus diagnosis. The algorithm was trained using a multi-center dataset of more than 2000 cases of ILD. A US-based multi-site cohort (n = 295) was used for algorithm tuning, and external validation was performed with a separate dataset (n = 295) from European and South American sources. ResultsIn the tuning set, the model achieved an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) of 0.87 (CI: 0.83–0.92) in differentiating IPF from other ILDs. Sensitivity and specificity were 0.67 (0.57–0.76) and 0.90 (0.83–0.95), respectively. By contrast, pre-recorded assessment prior to MDD diagnosis had sensitivity of 0.31 (0.23–0.42) and specificity of 0.92 (0.87–0.95). In the external test set, c-statistic was also 0.87 (0.83–0.91). Model performance was consistent across a variety of CT scanner manufacturers and slice thickness. ConclusionThe presented deep learning algorithm demonstrated consistent performance in identifying IPF among cases of ILD using CT images alone and suggests generalization across CT manufacturers.

History of classified balance sheets in Turkey by 1982

Research Questions: As an output of double-entry bookkeeping practices, when were the balance sheets first seen in Ottoman Empire? What factors (people, legislation, internationalization, etc.) impacted the layout or format of the balance sheets until the Capital Markets Law was enacted in 1982 in Turkey? When were the classified balance sheets first seen in Turkey before 1982? Motivation: The study is inspired by country-specific financial reporting history studies. Idea: This study investigates the history of the classified balance sheets in Turkey before 1982 regarding changes, developments, and evolutions and aims to explore the development of classified balance sheets in the Ottoman and Turkey. Data: For the study, secondary sources such as accessible textbooks adopted by higher education institutions by 1982 in Turkey are scanned and examined. Findings: The study argues that classified balance sheets in Turkey before 1982 evolved by translating from French, German, and American sources. This could be observed in the accounting textbooks published by different authors with different educational backgrounds. Contribution: The findings may help interested researchers pursue comparative studies or explore such developments and evolutions in their jurisdictions.

פלורליזם בציון: בין התנועה הרפורמית הישראלית לאמריקנית

This article deals with the attempts of the American Reform Movement to negotiate the constant tensions between the desire to mold a pluralistic Jewish identity in Israel in its own image, and its reservations about the possible ramifications of Jewish nationalism and the establishment of the State of Israel vis-à-vis American Jewry as an autonomous religious community. The Israeli Reform Movement, in contrast, has tried to balance the American sources that inspired its evolution by investing them with Zionist values with the creation of a Reform Hebrew culture. The dialectics between the American and Israeli Reform Movements explored here address the patrilineal descent decision of the American movement in 1983 and the response of the Israeli Movement. The ongoing tensions between the American and Israeli Movements hinge on the aspiration of both to seek legitimacy through the existence of the other while continuing to develop in accordance with their respective circumstances. Their relations have also been subjected to political and economic power dynamics, in which each side attempts to leverage actual or symbolic capital in order to promote its particular view of collective Jewish existence.

Digital Pseudo-Identification in the Post-Truth Era: Exploring Logical Fallacies in the Mainstream Media Coverage of the COVID-19 Vaccines

Because of China’s new wave of COVID-19 in May 2023, the issue of tackling COVID-19 misinformation remains relevant. Based on Lippmann’s theory of public opinion and agenda setting theory, this article aims to examine the concept of digital pseudo-identification as a type of logical fallacy that refers to supporting journalists’ opinions with ‘false’ arguments that lack factual evidence. To do so, the study applied computer-aided content analysis, as well as rhetorical and critical discourse analyses, to examine 400 articles related to four COVID-19 vaccines (‘Oxford-AstraZeneca’, ‘Pfizer-BioNTech’, ‘Sputnik V’ and ‘Sinovac’) published on the online versions of two major British and American mainstream media sources between August 2020 and December 2021. The results of the study show that journalists of the ‘The New York Times’ and ‘The Guardian’ used similar logical fallacies, including the opinions of pseudo-authorities and references to pseudo-statistics and stereotypes, which contributed to creating distorted representations of the COVID-19 vaccines and propagating online misinformation. The study also reveals political bias in both of the mainstream media sources, with relatively more positive coverage of the European vaccines than non-European vaccines. The findings have important implications for journalism and open up perspectives for further research on the concept of digital pseudo-identification in the humanities and social sciences.

S’agenrer avec la trans-psychiatrie : de Dorchen Richter à Paul B. Preciado

GoalsIn this article we establish the history of transpsychiatry from the debate with Sigmund Freud to the present day. The objective of this epistemology is to show how gender choice, or a-gendering, has always been part of psychiatrists’ clinical practice with trans patients. MethodsWe use archival sources and the history of psychiatry since 1830 in order to establish the stages of clinical work around gender: firstly, by finding in German and American sources the first consultations and the innovative techniques that made treatment possible; secondly, by situating the different discourses against binary categorization; and finally, by situating the speech and action of trans people in the production of new experiential knowledge. ResultsThe results demonstrate how the notion of gender within clinical psychiatry has moved from binary categorization to a participatory transpsychiatry that includes trans people and professional psychiatrists. Going from Dorchen Richet to Paul B. Preciado, the results of surgical and hormonal techniques are compared with the modifications of institutions, associations, and psychiatric journals. DiscussionThe discussion between psychiatrists and trans people is highlighted here through the themes of identity, subjective speech, and clinical support protocols. ConclusionTranspsychiatry is the recognition of both transgendering and the transformation of gender, as a clinical entity, by psychiatry.

A Proposal for A Canadian Government Speech Doctrine

How does section 2(b) law deal with factual scenarios entailing a close connection between government and expression, such that the public reasonably believes the speech in issue emanates from the government and not from a private individual? Foundational principles suggest section 2(b) has internal limits that prevent private speakers from co-opting the government’s voice. This paper reviews section 2(b) doctrine and reveals that existing law does not adequately facilitate consideration of this government nexus, resulting in confusion in lower courts on how to approach these factual scenarios. Drawing on American sources, this article proposes a solution: introduction of a “government speech doctrine.” Such a doctrine, properly modified to take into account the unique Canadian context, could bring conceptual clarity to this area of law.