American School Counselor Association National Model Research Articles

ASCA National Model implementation predicting school counselors’ job satisfaction with role stress mediating variables

AbstractThe present study surveyed a sample of school counselors (N = 220) on American School Counselor Association (ASCA) National Model implementation and role stress related to their job satisfaction. A path analysis was conducted to examine the relationships between the variables. ASCA National Model implementation predicted school counselor job satisfaction with role ambiguity and role incongruity as significant mediating variables. Role conflict was not a significant mediating variable. Implications, limitations, and future research for the school counseling profession are discussed.

Exploring the Relationship Between School Counselors’ Perceived ASCA National Model Implementation, Supervision Satisfaction, and Burnout

The authors investigated the relationship between perceived American School Counselor Association (ASCA) National Model implementation, supervision satisfaction, and burnout in a sample of 208 practicing school counselors, of whom all were members of ASCA. After school district type, grade level, and consultation hours were controlled, results showed that increases in perceived ASCA National Model implementation and supervision satisfaction were related to decreases in burnout. Implications for the school counseling profession are discussed.

Predicting School Counselors’ Supports and Challenges When Implementing the ASCA National Model

This study examined a national sample of school counselors and their ability to implement the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) National Model. Percentage of time spent in noncounseling duties, perceived level of principal support, and principals’ knowledge of school counselors’ appropriate roles were statistically significant predictor variables for school counselors’ ability to implement the ASCA National Model. We discuss implications for the school counseling profession.

School Counseling Faculty Perceptions and Experiences Preparing Elementary School Counselors

School counselors meet students' academic, career, social and emotional needs through comprehensive school counseling programs (CSCPs) such as the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) National Model (2012, 2014a; Gysbers & Henderson, 2012). CSCPs have existed for the last 40 years and are frameworks for facilitating data-driven, student-focused, preventative, systemic and developmental school counseling services implemented in schools from preschool through 12th grade (ASCA, 2012; Gysbers & Henderson, 2012). According to student reports, CSCP implementation has been associated with higher student achievement scores (Sink, Akos, Turnbull, & Mvududu, 2008; Sink & Stroh, 2003); higher student grades and a more positive school climate (Lapan, Gysbers, & Sun, 1997); and students feeling safer, having better relationships with teachers, and earning higher grades (Lapan, Gysbers, & Petroski, 2001). Additionally, researchers found CSCP implementation was associated with higher student math and reading achievement scores; increased college and career readiness; lower suspension, discipline and truancy rates; and higher attendance, graduation and retention rates (Burkard, Gillen, Martinez, & Skytte, 2012; Carey, Harrington, Martin, & Hoffman, 2012; Carey, Harrington, Martin, & Stevenson, 2012). In summary, highly trained, professional school counselors deliver ASCA National Model comprehensive school counseling program services, students receive measurable benefits (Lapan, 2012, p. 88).Typically, school counselors are first equipped to implement CSCPs through their pre-service preparation programs. School counselor preparation, licensure and practice are often recommended as uniform across educational levels (i.e., elementary, middle, and high school). The Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP), the primary counseling accrediting organization, provides school counselor preparation standards P-12 (CACREP, 2015); most U.S. states and territories (N = 43/55) certify and license school counselors K-12 (American Counseling Association [ACA], 2012); and the ASCA National Model also describes their CSCP as K-12 (ASCA, 2012). However, many researchers have found differences in school counselors' reported perceptions and job activities by educational level and have highlighted the unique role of the elementary school counselor (Dahir, Burnham, & Stone, 2009; Hatch & Chen-Hayes, 2008; PereraDiltz & Mason, 2008; Rayle & Adams, 2008; Scarborough, 2005; Scarborough & Culbreth, 2008; Studer, Diambra, Breckner, & Heidel, 2011).Compared to school counselors at other educational levels, elementary school counselors reported performing and placing greater emphasis on delivering classroom lessons and curriculum (Dahir et al., 2009; Perera-Diltz & Mason, 2008; Rayle & Adams, 2008; Scarborough, 2005; Studer et al., 2011), counseling interventions (Dahir et al., 2009; Perera-Diltz & Mason, 2008; Rayle & Adams, 2008; Scarborough, 2005), and school counseling program coordination and management activities (Dahir et al., 2009; Rayle & Adams, 2008; Scarborough, 2005). Further, elementary school counselors reported a greater emphasis on personal and social development and focused less on academic and career development when compared to high school counselors (Dahir et al., 2009); spent more time on parent planning, teacher consultation and collaboration, non-CSCP activities, and CSCP implementation based on the ASCA National Model (Rayle & Adams, 2008); were the most likely level to conduct activities aligned with CSCPs (Scarborough & Culbreth, 2008); and performed the least individual student planning (i.e., individual and group advisement) of all the levels (PereraDiltz & Mason, 2008). Thus, despite the K-12 focus in school counselor preparation, licensure, certification and practice, school counselors reported significant differences between job activities at the elementary and secondary levels. …

The ASCA Model and a Multi-Tiered System of Supports: A Framework to Support Students of Color With Problem Behavior

Educational disparities are well documented for students of color in the United States (Delpit, 2006; Ford & Moore, 2013; U.S. Department of Education [USDOE], 2014). Today's students of color are facing lower graduation rates, overuse of exclusionary disciplinary action, overrepresentation in exceptional education programming and school policies that negatively impact students of color rather than support them (Moore, Henfield, & Owens, 2008; USDOE, 2014; R. Palmer & Maramba, 2010; Toldson & Lewis, 2012). School discipline policies based on a framework of zero tolerance have not reduced suspensions or expulsions as initially intended. Instead, these policies have resulted in more students being excluded from the classroom due to reactive disciplinary action (Skiba, 2014). Bernstein (2014) posited that these policies are increasing the educational achievement gap and negatively impacting the development of students of color. What then can be done as an alternative to or as a measure to prevent exclusionary disciplinary actions such as suspensions and expulsions?A multi-tiered system of supports (MTSS) is a systematic data-driven program designed to address academic concerns and problem behavior by utilizing both prevention and intervention strategies (Sugai & Horner, 2009). Specific to behavior-related concerns, MTSS programs offer a structured method for providing both universal and individual support for students and present data-driven alternatives to suspension and expulsion. School counselors are uniquely positioned to play a critical role in the implementation of such programs due to their training in data analysis, program development and direct service delivery. Moreover, MTSS programs align well with the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) National Model (2012a).The ASCA National Model has themes of social justice, advocacy and systemic change infused throughout, as comprehensive school counseling programs are designed to remove barriers to student success and help students reach their potential in the areas of academic, career, social and emotional development (ASCA, 2012a). With these themes in mind, integrating the National Model with the objective and data-driven framework of MTSS may offer one solution for systemic educational disparities such as the school-to-prison pipeline. The purpose of this article is to describe a model for integrating elements of the ASCA National Model within the MTSS framework. The authors will describe steps involved in the process and will provide context for how such an intervention can specifically benefit students of color.The School-to-Prison PipelineMore than 6.8 million individuals were under supervision of the adult correctional system in the United States at the end of 2014, a rate of 1 in 36 adults (Kaeble, Glaze, Tsoutis, & Minton, 2015). Of those under correctional supervision, over 1.5 million were held in state and federal correctional facilities (Carson, 2015). Although these numbers mark a slight decrease in the correctional population since 2007 (Kaeble et al., 2015), the American incarceration rate has quadrupled since the 1970s (Travis, Western, & Redburn, 2014). The growth of incarceration in the United States over the past four decades has largely affected the Black and Latino communities, both of which are disproportionately represented among individuals involved with the correctional system (Carson, 2015). Scholars in multiple academic disciplines have linked American drug policy and enforcement with mass incarceration of primarily individuals of color (Alexander, 2010; Travis et al., 2014). In education, however, a parallel cause has contributed to the expansion of the correctional system in the United States. Increasingly punitive discipline policies marked by zero tolerance approaches have created a pipeline from schools to prisons where exclusion from the educational environment and criminalization of student misbehavior contribute to school dropout and involvement with the juvenile justice system (Fowler, 2011). …

Introduction to the Special Issue - School Counselors and a Multi-Tiered System of Supports: Cultivating Systemic Change and Equitable Outcomes

School counselors must proactively adapt to the varied mandates of school reform and educational innovations. Similarly, with new federal and state legislation, they must align their roles and functions in accordance with their changing requirements (Baker & Gerler, 2008; Dahir, 2004; Gysbers, 2001; Herr, 2002; Leuwerke, Walker & Shi, 2009; Paisley & Borders, 1995). One such initiative, the Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS), requires educators to revise their assessment strategies, curriculum, pedagogy and interventions to best serve the academic, behavioral, and postsecondary education and career goals of all students (Lewis, Mitchell, Bruntmeyer, & Sugai, 2016). Specifically, MTSS is an umbrella term for a variety of school-wide approaches to improve student learning and behavior. The most familiar MTSS frameworks are Response to Intervention (RTI) and Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS; also referred to as Culturally Responsive or CR PBIS). The latter model has been implemented throughout the U.S., spanning all 50 states and approximately 22,000 schools (H. Choi, personal communication, December 15, 2014). Moreover, 45 states have issued guidelines for RTI implementation and 17 states require RTI to be used in the identification of students with specific learning disabilities (Hauerwas, Brown, & Scott, 2013). Research indicates that when these frameworks are implemented with fidelity over several years, they are best practice for addressing students at risk for academic or behavioral problems (Lane, Menzies, Ennis, & Bezdek, 2013; Lewis et al., 2016).In 2014, the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) revised its RTI position statement to encompass MTSS, including both RTI and CR PBIS (ASCA, 2014). Although there is little evidence to support this assumption, the writers averred that MTSS seamlessly aligns with the ASCA National Model (2012a) in the three developmental domains (academic, social-emotional, and college/career). Nevertheless, school counselors should view MTSS frameworks as an opportunity to enhance their school counseling programs through the implementation of a data-driven, multi-tiered intervention system. Doing so allows school counselors to utilize and showcase their leadership skills with key stakeholders (e.g., parents, caregivers, teachers, administrators) and to create systemic changes in their schools and thus foster equitable outcomes for all children.The implementation of MTSS and its alignment with comprehensive school counseling programs (CSCPs) position school counselors to advance culturally responsive preventions and interventions to serve students and their families more effectively (Goodman-Scott, Betters-Bubon, & Donohue, 2016). By working collaboratively with school personnel to tap students' strengths and create common goals, school counselors can build capacity and thereby broaden their scope of practice and accountability. Politically astute school counselors are wise to leverage their school's MTSS framework as a way to access necessary resources, obtain additional training and further impact student outcomes.The research is scant on school counselor involvement with-and effectiveness in-MTSS implementation. The available publications, including those presented in this special issue, suggest that the level of MTSS education and training for pre-service and in-service school counselors is insufficient (Cressey, Whitcomb, McGilvray-Rivet, Morrison, & Shandler-Reynolds, 2014; Goodman-Scott, 2013, 2015; Goodman-Scott, Doyle, & Brott, 2014; Ockerman, Mason, & Hollenbeck, 2012; Ockerman, Patrikakou, & Feiker Hollenbeck, 2015). There are legitimate reasons for counselor reluctance and apprehension. For example, not only must school counselors add new and perhaps unfamiliar duties to an already harried work day, some evidence indicates that they are not well prepared for their MTSS responsibilities. …

Comparison Findings of School Counselor Beliefs About ASCA National Model School Counseling Program Components Using the SCPCS

The School Counseling Program Component Scale (SCPCS) was developed to measure beliefs about program components of the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) National Model. In 2002, results from the SCPCS indicated that “using data” was ranked as less important than other program components. The current follow-up study was conducted in 2009. Results from this study indicated that the component subscales are consistent and reliable. Notable shifts were found in “use of data for program planning” and “use of data for accountability” subscales, suggesting that school counselors may have begun to prioritize the value of using data.

Development of a Logic Model to Guide Evaluations of the ASCA National Model for School Counseling Programs

A logic model was developed based on an analysis of the 2012 American School Counselor Association (ASCA) National Model in order to provide direction for program evaluation initiatives. The logic model identified three outcomes (increased student achievement/gap reduction, increased school counseling program resources, and systemic change and school improvement), seven outputs (student change, parent involvement, teacher competence, school policies and processes, competence of the school counselors, improvements in the school counseling program, and administrator support), six major clusters of activities (direct services, indirect services, school counselor personnel evaluation, program management processes, program evaluation processes and program advocacy) and two inputs (foundational elements and program resources). The identification of these logic model components and linkages among these components was used to identify a number of necessary and important evaluation studies of the ASCA National Model.Keywords: ASCA National Model, school counseling, logic model, program evaluation, evaluation studiesSince its initial publication in 2003, The ASCA National Model: A Framework for School Counseling Programs has had a dramatic impact on the practice of school counseling (American School Counselor Association [ASCA], 2003). Many states have revised their model of school counseling to make it consistent with this model (Martin, Carey, & DeCoster, 2009), and many schools across the country have implemented the ASCA National Model. The ASCA Web site, for example, currently lists over 400 schools from 33 states that have won a Recognized ASCA Model Program (RAMP) award since 2003 as recognition for exemplary implementation of the model (ASCA, 2013).While the ASCA National Model has had a profound impact on the practice of school counseling, very few studies have been published that evaluate the model itself. Evaluation is necessary to determine if the implementation of the model results in the model's anticipated benefits and to determine how the model can be improved. The key studies typically cited (see ASCA, 2005) as supporting the effectiveness of the ASCA National Model (e.g., Lapan, Gysbers, & Petroski, 2001; Lapan, Gysbers, & Sun, 1997) were actually conducted before the model was developed and were designed as evaluations of Comprehensive Developmental Guidance, which is an important precursor and component of the ASCA National Model, but not the model itself.Two recent statewide evaluations of school counseling programs focused on the relationships between the level of implementation of the ASCA National Model and student outcomes. In a statewide evaluation of school counseling programs in Nebraska, Carey, Harrington, Martin, and Hoffman (2012) found that the extent to which a school counseling program had a well-implemented, differentiated delivery system consistent with practices advocated by the ASCA National Model was associated with lower suspension rates, lower discipline incident rates, higher attendance rates, higher math proficiency and higher reading proficiency. These results suggest that model implementation is associated with increased student engagement, fewer disciplinary problems and higher student achievement. In a similar statewide evaluation study in Utah, Carey, Harrington, Martin, and Stevens (2012) found that the extent to which the school counseling program had a programmatic orientation, similar to that advocated in the ASCA National Model, was associated with both higher average ACT scores and a higher number of students taking the ACT. This suggests that model implementation is associated with both increased achievement and a broadening of student interest in college. While these studies suggest that benefits to students are associated with the implementation of the ASCA National Model, additional evaluations are necessary that use stronger (e.g., quasi-experimental and longitudinal) designs and investigate specific components of the model in order to determine their effectiveness or how they can be improved. …

The Relationship of School Art Therapy and the American School Counselor National Model

Art therapists must overcome systemic challenges in order to continue to provide art therapy services in U.S. public schools. An understanding of how art therapy programs fit within the national standards of the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) and the ASCA National Model may help in this effort. This review article compares recently published literature on school art therapy with the guidelines set forth in the ASCA National Model. School art therapy programs can meet the core beliefs, philosophies, and missions that are currently identified with school counseling programs; however, evidence-based research is needed to validate school art therapy as an effective intervention.

Eating Issues in Schools: Detection, Management, and Consultation With Allied Professionals

It is well documented that eating disorders tend to emerge in adolescence and young adulthood. Recent epidemiological research indicates that the highest incidence (new cases) of anorexia nervosa occurs in young females between the ages of 15 and 19 (Keski-Rahkonen et al., 2007), whereas the highest incidence of bulimia nervosa occurs in young females between the ages of 16 and 20 (Keski-Rahkonen et al., 2009). Because of this age of onset, many individuals who develop eating disorders are students who spend a significant amount of time at school around their peers and school faculty. School counselors, therefore, are in a unique and important position to detect student eating issues in the early stages and to take steps to ensure that student needs are being met. The prevalence of eating-related problems in the schools is difficult to pinpoint. Although anorexia and bulimia are relatively rare in the general population, the most often diagnosed eating disorder is eating disorder not otherwise specified (EDNOS), the category researchers know the least about (Striegel-Moore & Bulik, 2007). In addition, many adolescents struggle with potentially serious eating issues that do not meet the diagnostic criteria for an eating disorder. A recent nationally representative sample of American high school students revealed that a staggering 59.3% of girls and 30.5% of boys were trying to lose weight (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2010). Nearly 15% of girls and 7% of boys acknowledged having engaged in unhealthy dieting behaviors within the past month (CDC, 2010). Subclinical eating problems such as these can lead to the development of various mental health problems in young adulthood, including depression, anxiety, and substance abuse disorders (Lewinsohn, Striegel-Moore, & Seeley, 2000). Finally, eating disorder statistics do not account for adolescents who in some way are dissatisfied about their body size or shape. Research indicates that between 40% and 70% of adolescent girls are dissatisfied with two or more aspects of their bodies (Levine & Smolak, 2004). Body dissatisfaction is so widespread among adolescent girls that it could be considered a normative discontent (Levine & Smolak, 2004, p. 74). The American School Counselor Association (ASCA) promotes the school counselor's understanding of the continuum of mental health services, including prevention and intervention strategies for addressing academic personal/ social and career development to enhance student success in school counselor preparation programs (ASCA, 2008, p. 39). However, school counseling students are not required to take courses in psychopathology (Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs [CACREP], 2009). This gap in training could lead school counselors to believe that they cannot adequately manage eating issues in the school setting. This is not necessarily the case. Although it is outside the school counselor's scope to diagnose students with specific mental disorders, they have a critical role to play in assessment, support, referral, and follow-up services (Geroski, Rodgers, & Breen, 1997). Consultation can enhance this role, and counselors can benefit from the existing knowledge base on consultation (Zins, 2002). In alignment with the ASCA National Model, consultation with parents or guardians, teachers, and community agencies to meet student needs is a key element of the delivery system (ASCA, 2005). ASCA (2005) promotes the delivery of responsive services in the schools to address the wide range of needs and concerns of students through counseling, consultation, and referral. It is possible for school counselors, therefore, to take on an expanded role with regard to eating-related problems in schools that encompasses assessment, consultation, and ongoing case management. Thus, the purpose of this article is to provide school counselors with a resource for assessing and managing eating issues in the schools, including when and how to consult with other human service professionals. …

Predicting Student Outcome Measures Using the ASCA National Model Program Audit

This study explored the prediction of student outcome variables from the ASCA model level of program implementation. A total sampling of schools from two suburban school districts was conducted. Outcome variables were measures of math and reading achievement scores, attendance and graduation rates.At a time when accountability within the school counseling profession is at the forefront, school counselors are required to present evidence which validates the effectiveness of daily practices. The American School Counselor Association (ASCA) created a framework for implementing comprehensive developmental school counseling programs through specification of standards and competencies. But does degree of implementation of the ASCA National Model (2005) affect the ability of school counselors to meet student needs? This assertion is supported by correlative or indirect research which indicates the positive effects of fully implemented school counseling programs (Brigman & Campbell, 2003; Carrell & Carrell, 2006; Lapan, Gysbers, & Kayson, 2007; Lapan, Gysbers, & Petroski, 2001; Lapan, Gysbers, & Sun, 1997; McGannon, Carey, & Dimmitt, 2005; Nelson, Gardner, & Fox, 1998; Sink, 2005; Sink & Stroh, 2003; Whiston & Wachter, 2008).A focus on attaining the goals of a comprehensive program is essential to initiate systemic change and to establish the school counseling program as an integral part of the total educational process. School counselors develop and refine their roles in order to meet the diverse needs of students and the school community. Transitioning from the traditional guidance program, or no program at all, to a comprehensive, developmental school counseling program is a demanding task, but is attainable through collaboration among school counselors and stakeholders. A program audit is a fundamental step in this process as well as in evaluating where a counseling program currently is and establishing where the program aims to go in the future.ASCA (2005) presented a standardized framework for creating a comprehensive school counseling program that supports the academic, career and personal/social development of students throughout their academic careers. According to ASCA, a school counseling program is comprehensive, preventative and developmental in nature. This framework provides school counselors with an all-inclusive approach to program foundation, delivery, management and accountability. Similar to the Education Trust (2009) and College Board (2009), ASCA promotes a new vision for the school counseling profession which reflects accountability, advocacy, leadership, collaboration, and systemic change within schools, positioning professional school counselors as essential contributors to student success.The extant literature reveals much support for the positive benefits of school counseling programs for students. As a result of fully implemented school counseling programs, students enjoy higher grades (Lapan et al., 2001; Lapan et al., 1997), better school climate (Lapan et al., 1997), higher satisfaction with education (Lapan et al., 2001; Lapan et al., 1997), more relevant education (Lapan et al., 2001), higher ACT scores (Nelson et al., 1998), and greater access to more advanced math, science, technical and vocational courses (Nelson et al., 1998). Studies also have provided evidence of fewer classroom disruptions and improved peer behavior among students who participated in comprehensive school counseling programs (Brigman & Campbell, 2003; Lapan, 2001; Lapan et al., 2007; Lapan et al., 1997; Sink, 2005; Sink & Stroh, 2003).The program audit is an evaluation tool used to determine the extent to which components of a comprehensive program are implemented and helps to make decisions concerning future directions that a school counseling program will take. A program audit, or process evaluation assists school counselors in implementing the standards and components of a comprehensive school counseling program, in addition to identifying areas for improvement or enhancement (ASCA, 2005). …