American Professional Baseball Research Articles

Rotational Shoulder Strength Profiles In North And Latin American Professional Baseball Pitchers And Position Players

Musculature of the shoulder acts to accelerate, decelerate and stabilize the arm during throwing. Shoulder rotational strength profiles can be leveraged to identify deficits that may explain a change in performance and injury risk. Previous studies of professional baseball players have not distinguished strength profiles across geographic areas of origin, and often only consider pitchers. PURPOSE: To characterize the effects of player position (Pitcher, Position Player) and geographic origin (North American, Latin American) on shoulder external (ER) and internal (IR) rotation strength in professional baseball players. METHODS: Minor league baseball players (N = 242, N = 135 Pitchers, N = 162 North American) participated. Each athlete completed two trials of maximal isometric ER and IR strength (arm at 0° abduction) using a handheld dynamometer. Strength data were normalized to bodyweight. RESULTS: Across both origins, position players were significantly stronger in ER (p < 0.001) and IR (p < 0.001) with higher ER:IR strength ratios (0.77 ± 0.17 vs. 0.73 ± 0.14, p < 0.043) compared to pitchers. Across all positions, Latin American athletes were significantly stronger in ER (mean difference (MD) = 0.3 N/kg, p < 0.001) and IR (MD = 0.2 N/kg, p < 0.001) compared to North American athletes. Specifically, Latin American pitchers were stronger in ER (MD = 0.4 N/kg, p = 0.002) and IR (MD = 0.2 N/kg, p = 0.006) compared to North American pitchers. No differences were found between position players of each region. North American pitchers were taller (189.3 cm ± 6.4 vs. 186.8 cm ± 5.6, p = 0.001) and heavier (94.6 kg ± 9.5 vs. 85.8 kg ± 13.4, p = 0.041) than Latin American pitchers. North American position players had similar heights but increased weight (89.1 kg ± 7.7 vs. 83.0 kg ± 11.5, p = 0.003) compared to Latin American position players. CONCLUSION: Player position and geographic origin are related to shoulder rotational strength values in professional baseball players. Latin American pitchers were stronger than North American pitchers when strength was normalized to bodyweight. These normative values can be used to determine player deficits, declines in performance, targets for return to play after injury, and advance strength and conditioning practices. Supported by a Major League Baseball research grant.

Epidemiology, Treatment, and Performance-Based Outcomes in American Professional Baseball Players With Symptomatic Spondylolysis and Isthmic Spondylolisthesis

Background: Repetitive lumbar hyperextension and rotation during athletic activity affect the structural integrity of the lumbar spine. While many sports have been associated with an increased risk of developing a pars defect, few previous studies have systematically investigated spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis in professional baseball players. Purpose: To characterize the epidemiology and treatment of symptomatic lumbar spondylolysis and isthmic spondylolisthesis in American professional baseball players. We also sought to report the return-to-play (RTP) and performance-based outcomes associated with the diagnosis of a pars defect in this elite athlete population. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Methods: A retrospective cohort study was conducted among all Major and Minor League Baseball (MLB and MiLB, respectively) players who had low back pain and underwent lumbar spine imaging between 2011 and 2016. Players with radiological evidence of a pars defect (with or without listhesis) were included. Analyses were conducted to assess the association between player-specific characteristics and RTP time. Baseball performance metrics were also compared before and after the injury episode to determine whether there was an association between the diagnosis of a pars defect and diminished player performance. Results: During the study period of 6 MLB seasons, 272 professional baseball players had low back pain and underwent lumbar spine imaging. Overall, 75 of these athletes (27.6%) received a diagnosis of pars defect. All affected athletes except one (98.7%) successfully returned to professional baseball, with a median RTP time of 51 days. Players with spondylolisthesis returned to play faster than those with spondylolysis, MLB athletes returned faster than MiLB athletes, and position players returned faster than pitchers. Athletes with a diagnosed pars defect did not show a significant decline in performance after returning to competition after their injury episode. Conclusion: Lumbar pars defects were a common cause of low back pain in American professional baseball players. The vast majority of affected athletes were able to return to competition without demonstrating a significant decline in baseball performance.

Madame executive: baseball the Manley way

ABSTRACTEffa Manley, arguably the most demanding matriarch in baseball history, was a pioneer in many respects. As the first female owner of an American professional baseball team, she helped hone the skills of numerous star players while negotiating contracts with several of the most savvy team owners within Major League Baseball. Her plaque in Major Leagues Baseball’s Hall of Fame is a testament to her dedication to the sport, steadfast resolve, and administrative leadership.

Sueños de Béisbol: Hopes, Experiences, and Expectations of Professional Baseball Players in the Dominican Republic

More than 1,400 Latin American professional baseball players, age 16-21, are employed by 30 Major League Baseball (MLB) academies in the Dominican Republic. The popular press has highlighted scandals related to professional youth baseball player recruitment, selection, and exploitation in the academies, but little attention has been given to the academy experiences of youth baseball players from the perspective of the players themselves. For this research, 11 professional baseball players residing at an MLB Academy in the Dominican Republic participated in semi-structured interviews. Players described their transitions into the baseball academy system, their experiences in the academy, and their perceptions and expectations upon leaving or being released from the academy. Themes that emerged from the data included athletes’ hopes and dreams, stress, faith, and career transitions. Clinical implications of these findings for sport psychology practitioners are discussed.

Performance-Based Outcomes Following Symptomatic Pars Injuries in American Professional Baseball Players

Objectives:Previous studies in the evidence-based literature suggest that lumbar spine injuries can lead to a significant decrease in athletic performance. This phenomenon is particularly evident in sports that require repetitive truncal rotation, such as baseball. Although we have previously characterized the natural history of symptomatic spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis in professional baseball players, no prior study has investigated the impact of pars injuries on player performance in this patient population. The purpose of this study was to report performance-based outcomes following symptomatic pars injuries in elite-level baseball athletes.Methods:A retrospective cohort study was conducted among all professional baseball players who presented with a symptomatic pars defect between 2011 and 2016. Both Major League and Minor League players were enrolled using a de-identified injury surveillance database maintained by the MLB. Lumbar spine imaging reports were reviewed to confirm the radiologic diagnosis of spondylolysis or spondylolisthesis. Players were stratified according to baseball position (pitcher vs. position player). Primary outcome measures for pitchers were earned run average (ERA) and walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP), while primary outcomes for position players were batting average (AVG) and on-base plus slugging (OPS). Paired t tests were used to compare pre-injury statistical performance to post-injury performance, with p < 0.05 treated as statistically significant.Results:During the defined study period, 75 players presented with low-back pain in the setting of a pars defect. 47 players were diagnosed with spondylolysis (62.7%), while 28 were diagnosed with spondylolisthesis (37.3%). Of those individuals, 19 players were excluded due to incomplete statistical data in the MLB injury surveillance system. Pre-injury vs. post-injury statistical comparisons are presented in Table 1. Pitching performance after the pars injury did not significantly differ with regard to the primary outcome measures, ERA (3.45 vs. 4.73; p = 0.25) and WHIP (1.28 vs. 1.47; p = 0.26). There was also no significant difference in any of the secondary outcomes - runs per 9 innings (R/9), hits per 9 innings (H/9), walks per 9 innings (BB/9), strikeouts per 9 innings (K/9), home runs per 9 innings (HR/9), and strikeout-to-walk ratio (K/BB). Similarly, batting performance among position players did not significantly differ from pre-injury to post-injury with regard to the primary outcomes, AVG (.261 vs. .256; p = 0.59) and OPS (.672 vs. .667; p = 0.87), or any of the secondary outcomes - on-base percentage (OBP), slugging percentage (SLG), runs per plate appearance (R/PA), hits per plate appearance (H/PA), runs batted in per plate appearance (RBI/PA), extra-base hits per plate appearance (XBH/PA), home runs per plate appearance (HR/PA), and walk-to-strikeout ratio (BB/K).Conclusion:This study represents the most comprehensive analysis of the impact of symptomatic pars injuries on MLB player performance. While previous studies suggest that lumbar injuries lead to shorter careers in both pitchers and position players, our current data demonstrate that pars defects do not cause a significant decrease in performance when MLB athletes return to play following these injury episodes. Given the limitations of our study design, larger prospective investigations are needed to validate these conclusions.Table 1.Pre-Injury and Post-Injury StatisticsPre-Injury (mean)Post-Injury (mean)P ValuePitchers ERA3.454.730.25 WHIP1.271.470.26 R/93.985.500.22 H/98.698.550.86 BB/92.794.680.26 K/97.288.570.07 HR/91.150.840.57 K/BB2.883.000.69Position Players AVG.261.2560.59 OPS.672.6670.87 OBP.266.2590.27 SLG.406.4090.90 R/PA0.120.120.86 H/PA0.240.230.31 RBI/PA0.110.110.56 XBH/PA0.080.080.93 HR/PA0.020.020.74 BB/K0.450.430.70

Biomechanical Differences Between Japanese and American Professional Baseball Pitchers.

Background:Although baseball injuries are common in both Japan and the United States, the majority of pitching injuries in Japanese players occur at the shoulder, whereas most pitching injuries in American players occur at the elbow. A biomechanical comparison between Japanese and American pitchers may help to identify the different injury mechanisms.Hypothesis:Japanese pitchers produce greater shoulder kinetics whereas American pitchers generate greater elbow kinetics. Also, kinematic differences will be found between the 2 groups, including longer stride and greater lead knee flexion for Japanese pitchers.Study Design:Descriptive laboratory study.Methods:Biomechanical data for 19 Japanese professional baseball pitchers and an age-matched group of 19 American professional baseball pitchers were collected by use of a 3-dimensional, automated, high-speed optical motion capture system. Anthropometric, kinetic, and kinematic data for both groups were compared by use of t tests (P < .05).Results:American pitchers were taller and heavier and generated greater ball velocity (38.1 ± 1.6 vs 34.7 ± 1.1 m/s; P < .001) than their Japanese counterparts. Most elbow and shoulder kinetic parameters, including elbow varus torque (99 ± 17 vs 86 ± 17 N·m; P = .018), were greater for American pitchers. However, when normalized by bodyweight and height, shoulder horizontal adduction torque was greater for Japanese pitchers (6.8% ± 1.0% vs 5.8% ± 1.1%; P = .005). Japanese pitchers had longer stride (86% ± 5% vs 82% ± 6% of height; P = .023), greater shoulder abduction at ball release (101° ± 8° vs 94° ± 9°; P = .014), and greater knee flexion after ball release (39° ± 18° vs 28° ± 14°; P = .039). Japanese pitchers also demonstrated greater shoulder internal rotation velocity, elbow flexion, and elbow extension velocity.Conclusion:Greater elbow varus torque may predispose American pitchers to greater risk of elbow injury. Japanese pitchers may have increased risk of shoulder injury due to greater normalized horizontal adduction torque and greater abduction angle. Japanese pitchers may be able to reduce their shoulder torque and risk of injury by shortening their stride, reducing their lead knee flexion, and decreasing their throwing arm abduction.Clinical Relevance:Understanding anthropometric, kinetic, and kinematic differences between pitchers from the 2 countries may be of value to clinicians and coaches working to maximize performance of the pitchers while minimizing the risk of injury.

Training Plays an Essential Role in Delivering Practical Knowledge

Tech 101 Practical knowledge can be defined as “knowledge attained through action” while theoretical knowledge is “knowledge attained through established facts or thoughts.” One of my favorite quotes on this matter is from the recently deceased Yogi Berra, an American professional baseball catcher, manager, and coach. Yogi was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1972. In addition, he was famous for his paradoxical quotes. We are living in exponential times and knowledge is at the center of it. By the time you graduate, the skills you learned in college will be outdated and it does not stop there. Before you even feel like you have mastered your current job, you will probably transition to a new job or even a new career. The typical person changes jobs 10 to 15 times during his or her working career. The US Bureau of Labor Statistics found that people born between 1957 and 1964 held an average of 11.7 jobs from ages 18 to 51. Training will be your constant companion, and your ability to learn, apply, and relearn will be your most important skill. Knowledge Begins as Practical Experience The first lesson in practical knowledge is that you must make room for it. As we attain theoretical knowledge through formal education, we can get caught up in a false sense of thinking that our learning is complete. Do not fall into that trap. You will really understand that the first time you go out to the field you are side-by-side with your colleagues who are pushing the boundaries. They tackle obstacles and challenges every day. It becomes part of their nature; it becomes natural and instinctive. That is what you want to learn from them. It is important to remember that “openness and humility” are the real signs of intelligence. People will not share their valuable knowledge and experience with you otherwise.

Using Statistical Process Control Charts to Identify the Steroids Era in Major League Baseball: An Educational Exercise

This article presents an educational exercise in which statistical process control charts are constructed and used to identify the Steroids Era in American professional baseball. During this period (roughly 1993 until the present), numerous baseball players were alleged or proven to have used banned, performance-enhancing drugs. Also observed during this period was an increase in offensive performance. In this exercise, students are given the opportunity to construct trial control limits from historical data, consider the presence of random and assignable cause variation, and analyze offensive performance for the 1993 to 2008 baseball seasons. From this analysis, students can consider the potential impact of performance-enhancing drugs on offensive performance in Major League Baseball.

Baseball in the breach: Notes on defection, disaffection and transition in contemporary Cuba

This article explores the popular ambivalence permeating contemporary Cuban socialism as Cuban citizens struggle to reconcile a deep sense of pride and accomplishment in the revolution with the need for political, economic and social reform. I focus on the everyday lives of Cuban baseball fans attempting to make sense of the deprivations and distortions of an economy and cultural order in crisis that is made all the more real for them in the emergence of baseball player defections to play in American professional baseball. Through an analysis of these defections as well as Cuban baseball fan responses to them, I argue that the context of economic crisis in contemporary Cuba has entailed a dynamic rethinking of Cuban culture and political economy, a process that is intimately bound up with American cultural, political, and economic forms such as Major League Baseball, but that these Cuban transformations are never simply determined by them.

Bud Fowler: The First African American Professional Baseball Player and the 1885 Keokuks

Bud Fowler: The First African American Professional Baseball Player and the 1885 Keokuks

Viva baseball!: Latin major leaguers and their special hunger

Lively and anecdotal, Viva Baseball! chronicles the struggles of Latin American professional baseball players in the United States from the late 1800s to the present. Even as Fernandomania raged in 1981, most Latin players felt lonely, shunned, and forgotten. Samuel O. Regalado reveals the shocking racism faced by these immigrant athletes in a white culture. In addition to mining the National Baseball Library in Cooperstown, New York, and the Sporting News archives, Regalado conducted interviews with some twenty-five Latin baseball stars, including Felipe Alou, Orlando Cepeda, and Tony Oliva.

GROUPIES AND AMERICAN BASEBALL

Widespread public awareness of “groupies”—women who seek relationships with male celebrities—in American professional baseball dates to the 1970s, particularly to the release of popular films such as Bull Durham and the publication of several insider accounts of the lives of ballplayers. This article, based on interviews with groupies and with major and minor league ballplayers, first examines the motivations of the women who pursue such relationships with ballplayers and the strategies they use to get attention. It then turns to the players' attitudes toward groupies and their relationships with them. The groupie phenomenon plays out on a small stage the larger gender roles played by women and men in American society, with desirability for women defined largely in terms of physical attractiveness and for men defined largely in terms of achieved skills as measured by money and fame.

Effects of Formal Structure on Managerial Recruitment: Comparisons of Japanese and North American Professional Baseball Clubs

This paper replicates Grusky’s (1963) study of the playing position-leadership recruitment relationship among North American professional baseball clubs in a different cultural context, comparing it to Japanese professional base-ball organizations over a 40-year period. Overall, the Japanese results are consistent with the North American findings, with the more central or high interaction positions contributing more leaders or field managers. However, the relationship is considerably weaker for the sport in Japan. There were also significant cross-cultural differences in the consequences of players having held the positions of pitcher and catcher. Alternative interpretations of the results are offered, and the implications of the results for choices of appropriate research strategies are presented.

An Extension of the Black, Latin, White Report

This paper is an analytical extension of the data compiled by Neft. Johnson. Cohen and Deutsch (1974) and published under the title "The Black, Latin. White Report''. The "Report" contains a mass of statistical data for the performance of black, Latin, and white American professional baseball players, but does not provide the reader with valid comparisons of performance differentials. Therefore, the present analyses permit meaningful comparisons by selecting and computing appropriate criterion and norming variables for the following areas of performance: batting averages, doubles, triples, home runs, slugging averages (for batting), and wins, losses, saves. hits. walks, strike-outs, and e.r.a.'s for pitching. This statistical refinement warranted applying numerous tests of statistical significance for four different time periods: 1) 1947—1960, 2) 1961—1968, 3) 1969—1973, and 4) a composite comparison for the entire 1947—1973 time frame. The results are highly indicative of superior hitting and pitching perform ances on the part of black and Latin athletes in comparison to white players. The reason why this is the case is theoretically addressed.