American College Athletes Research Articles

COMPARISON OF THE ‘SEATTLE’ AND ‘INTERNATIONAL’ CRITERIA ELECTROCARDIOGRAM INTERPRETATION IN DIVISION II AFRICAN AMERICAN COLLEGE ATHLETES

PURPOSE: A 12-lead exercise stress test is a screening tool used to detect abnormalities that may predispose collegiate athletes to sudden cardiac death. Experts in the field have developed new standardized criteria to better interpret electrocardiogram (ECG) in athletes. Recent research suggests that African American athletes are more prone to cardiac abnormalities. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the sensitivity and specificity of the Seattle Criteria to the most recently created International Criteria in regard to ECG abnormalities in Division II African-American collegiate athletes. METHODS: Forty four African American male athletes (football, basketball, soccer) (age 22.2 + 1.4 yrs; height 1.82 + 0.1 m; weight 88.8 + 14.9 kg) completed cardiovascular screening with a resting 12-lead ECG analysis which was read and interpreted, according to each criterion, by an expert in the field of exercise science. ECGs were classified as ‘normal’ and ‘abnormal’ according to the parameters of each criterion, and any abnormal condition was noted. The sensitivity and specificity of both criteria were computed. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in the sensitivity between both criteria (98.1%-100%). The International Criteria was more specific than the Seattle Criteria (91.2-94.1% vs. 87.4-88.2%). Applying the International Criteria when evaluating African American college athletes resulted in a significant decrease in abnormal ECGs and improvement of the positive predictive value of an abnormal ECG. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrated that following the International Criteria for ECG interpretation significantly reduced the total abnormal and false-positive ECG rates in African American collegiate athletes compared to the Seattle Criteria without compromising sensitivity. It is important to continue to conduct ECG research on athletes of different ethnicities and races in order to further define valid and reliable criteria for this underrepresented population.

Alston v NCAA: lessons American college athletics can offer about concentration and monopsony power in labour markets

<i>Alston v NCAA</i>: lessons American college athletics can offer about concentration and monopsony power in labour markets

The Myth of the Amateur: A History of College Athletic Scholarships

Amateurism in American college athletics never existed. From the earliest intercollegiate sports contests in the middle of the nineteenth century, athletes were compensated. The payment might have come as money, prizes, food, tuition, or in other forms, but it was always there. Within a decade of the initial competitions, coaches were paid to lead teams, often earning more for seasonal work than full-time professors or even college presidents made in a year. The myth of a pristine era when American college students played competitive sport for the sheer joy of participation never existed, but it did create an obvious discrepancy between that ideal and the professional reality that continues today.As with his other works, Ronald A. Smith exhibits mastery of the wonderful heritage and rich hypocrisy associated with the history of college sports. In The Myth of the Amateur, Smith uses an array of primary resources to trace the concept of amateurism on the American campus from its origins as an imitator of a faulty British model through more than a century and a half of often contradictory reform efforts. He organizes the book into seventeen chapters, addressing prominent issues of amateurism chronologically while placing topics within the broader context of subsequent events. Those topics include scholarships, training tables, athletic dorms, significant reports and meetings, women's sports, legal challenges, and others. Smith takes the reader from the earliest amateurism controversies of college sport in the middle of the nineteenth century to the name, image, and likeness (NIL) debates of the early decades of the twenty-first century.American colleges espousing amateurism while practicing professionalism is the foundation for the book. British upper classes created the notion of amateurism in the nineteenth century—essentially the idea that sport should be undertaken only for the love of the endeavor—because they did not want to participate with or compete against those considered socially beneath them. That this concept was attributed to a nonexistent ancient Greek ideal only made a dubious proposition worse because, as the gospel of so-called amateur sport spread, it assumed a moral superiority to professionalism in the minds of many. A parallel to the American college sports amateurism debate can be seen with the modern Olympic movement. Even if amateurism was historically held in higher esteem than professionalism, Smith points out that the aristocratic British model of sport had little chance of taking hold in a young America seething with the ideals of freedom and equality of opportunity. College leaders might preach the noble notion of sport for the sake of sport, but most also wanted to win, and they were usually willing to bend their principles in that pursuit.When Harvard rowed against Yale in 1852 at New Hampshire's Lake Winnipesaukee in America's first intercollegiate athletic contest, the crew members were treated to an eight-day expenses-paid vacation for the event. Before the end of the Civil War, Yale students hired William Wood to coach their rowers in a successful effort to break Harvard's winning streak in the regatta. By 1905, Harvard was paying alum Bill Reid $7,000 to coach the Crimson football squad, a sum significantly higher than the salary of a US senator and twice what most Harvard faculty earned. Virtually every college compensated athletes, whether paying them directly, establishing training tables and dorms for athletes, or offering athletic scholarships.All those examples violated standards of amateurism, elicited consistently contradictory responses from college sport leaders, and created an atmosphere of reform that led to the formation of conferences and eventually a national governing body (NCAA) for big-time college sports. Smith's research shows that organized efforts to promote amateurism and constrain compensation have yielded mixed results at best.The chapter on summer baseball is telling. Starting in the 1870s and continuing well into the twentieth century, it was common for college athletes to earn money playing baseball in the summer. Some were paid outright, and others played at resorts for free room and board and a stipend. Either instance violated the code of amateurism, so players resorted to using fake names, which in turn led to frequent challenges to eligibility and charges of cheating. In a terrific overview that mentions prominent proponents of American amateur sport of the era, Smith summarizes the ineffectual efforts to curb summer baseball compensation. After decades of debate, the issue fizzled out in the late 1950s when the NCAA allowed participation in sanctioned leagues. The book is full of similar examples, told in compelling fashion.Ron Smith is a preeminent historian of American college sports, and The Myth of the Amateur should be an immediate read for any serious study of the topic.

Exploring the Notion of Individual Social Responsibility (ISR) among Black Male College Football Athletes

Black male athletes are prominent figures in sport and society; and, as such, they are often subjected to the pressure of acting in a socially responsible manner. Given the predominance of Black males in American college athletics, it is important to examine their roles in society both on and off the field of play. Building upon of Agyemang and Singer’s (2013) study on the individual social responsibility (ISR) of Black male professional athletes, the purpose of this study was to explore the concept of ISR among Black male college athletes. In this study, we engaged in semi-structured interviews with Black male football athletes in efforts to garner a baseline understanding of how they perceive their social responsibility as notable members of society. Initial findings suggest notions of being a role model, engaging in ethical behavior, and overcoming marginalization, mainly in regard to issues of race. Implications for future research are discussed.

Sport Spectator Behavior as a Moral Issue in College Sport

AbstractFan abuse continues to be a serious problem in American college athletics. However, despite the magnitude of this problem, fan abuse has not received the same level of concern (i.e., promotion of sportsmanship and fair play) as “winning-at-all-costs” perpetrated by athletic participants. In response, the author argues that perhaps many in the sport milieu do not consider fan behavior as a moral issue (i.e., actions that are harmful to others) and therefore unworthy of more serious consideration. As a result, the purpose of this study was to explore the types of spectator abuse inflicted upon college athletes as well as assessing the emotional impact. The results of this study showed that college athletes do indeed experience a variety of insults and harassment. However, findings also indicated that athletes are generally emotionally unaffected by the abuse. The contradictory nature of this finding is discussed

Prevalence and significance of isolated T wave inversion in 1755 consecutive American collegiate athletes

BackgroundWe evaluated the prevalence of isolated T-wave inversions (TWI) in American athletes using contemporary ECG criteria. Ethnic and gender disparities including the association of isolated TWI with underlying abnormal cardiac structure are evaluated. MethodsFrom 2004 to 2014, 1755 collegiate athletes at a single American university underwent prospective collection of medical history, physical examination, 12-lead ECG, and 2-dimensional echocardiography. ECG analysis was performed to evaluate for isolated TWI as per contemporary ECG criteria. ResultsThe overall prevalence of isolated TWI is 1.3%. Ethnic and gender disparities are not observed in American athletes (black vs. white: 1.7% vs. 1.1%; p=0.41) (women vs. men: 1.5% vs. 1.1; p=0.52). No association was found with underlying cardiomyopathy. ConclusionA lower prevalence of isolated TWI in American athletes than previously reported. Isolated TWI was not associated with an abnormal echocardiogram. No ethnic or gender disparity is seen in American college athletes.

Abstract 19575: Prevalence of Abnormal T-wave Inversions in European and American Athletes and its Association with Abnormal Echocardiogram

Background: Electrocardiographic (ECG) evaluation is one of the primary tools utilized to screen for increased risk of sudden cardiac death in athletes. Recent study by Sheikh et al. proposed a further refinement to the Seattle criteria, known as the refined criteria. The objective of this study was to compare the prevalence of abnormal T-wave inversions (TWI) using the refined criteria in an American and European cohort and to evaluate the association of abnormal TWI with abnormal echocardiogram in the American cohort. Methods: Collegiate athletes at a single university underwent prospective collection of medical history, physical examination, 12-lead ECG, and 2-dimensional echocardiography from 2004 to 2013. ECG analysis of 1755 athletes was performed to asses for TWI as outlined by the refined criteria. Subjects were further classified by race, gender and area of TWI on ECG and compared to 5505 European athletes. Results: Of the 1755 American athletes, 49% were males and 1.3% had abnormal TWI. European cohort included 79% males and 3.9% abnormal TWI. Higher prevalence of abnormal TWI were noted in black athletes compared to white athletes in the American cohort (2% and 1.1% respectively). European counterpart had similar findings with 6% of black athletes and 3.3% of white athletes having abnormal TWI. In the American cohort abnormal TWI were distributed unequally within the anterior, lateral and antero-lateral leads (30%, 4% and 65% respectively). Only one American athlete (3.5%) with abnormal TWI had an abnormal echocardiogram. Conclusion: Incorporation of ECG assessment has been proposed as part of the preparticipation screening of athletes in United States. Comparison of American and European athletes showed a 67% lower prevalence of abnormal TWI in the American athletes. Only one American athlete with abnormal TWI had an abnormal echocardiogram. We conclude that abnormal TWI alone has a weak association with an abnormal echocardiogram in American college athletes.

The Impact of Desegregation on College Choices of Elite Black Athletes

Even a casual observer of American college athletics can see the emergence of star black athletes in conferences that once were racially segregated. By analyzing the college origins of National Football League and National Basketball Association draft choices between 1947 and 2011, this research measures the impact of higher education desegregation on the choices of elite African-American athletes in moving from historically black institutions (HBIs) to traditionally white institutions (TWIs). Using draft data and narrative descriptions, this paper documents when, why, and how this shift occurred. The desegregation of American education sometimes had the perverse effect of increasing opportunities for individual African-Americans, while subordinating the role or even extinguishing the black institutions serving that population in the Jim Crow era. In the desegregated era, there are some benefits to individual black athletes whose high professional draft status may make them young millionaires and to the states which have replaced a rigid odious racial color consciousness with fans cheering for university team colors worn by both their black and white athletes. But there is a price paid by the athletic programs of HBIs who are now confined to lower level conferences away from the most publicized contests. Some data reflected in the paper suggests that HBIs are losing in the competition to recruit elite black students in non-athletic fields as well.

Chronicle of a (Football) Death Foretold: The Imminent Demise of a National Pastime?

Football today, most conspicuously at the professional level (National Football League), is the economic and cultural colossus of American spectator sports. To speak of its ‘life cycle’, then, would seem nonsensical: although it has a clear ‘birth’, to speak of its ‘death’ might seem ridiculously premature. Yet, recent developments make imagining such a death possible. In this essay, I will explore two current controversies – over ‘athletes’ rights' at the collegiate level and the dangers of traumatic head injury at all levels – that have the potential to destroy American football at least in the form we know it today. And it will trace the factors behind those controversies – the insistent and persistent ‘amateurism’ of American college athletes and the fundamental violence of the game itself – back to their origins. What might end American football as we know it was present in the game from nearly its beginning.

Self-Determined Motivation as a Predictor of Burnout Among College Athletes

In this study, we examined self-determination theory (SDT; Deci &amp; Ryan, 1985) as a framework for understanding potential antecedents of burnout in 598 American college athletes. Using a cross-sectional design, the aims of the study were to investigate relationships among the dimensions of athlete burnout and the degree of self-determination among college athletes. As hypothesized, results indicated a strong relationship between the degree of self-determination and the dimensions of burnout, thus providing support for the utility of an SDT explanation regarding the occurrence of burnout. Findings also showed motivational variables to be the most powerful predictor of burnout (Devaluation, 44.5%; Reduced Sense of Accomplishment, 28%; Physical/Emotional Exhaustion, 15.4%). Implications of these results for researchers and practitioners are discussed.

“Don't Call Me a Student-Athlete”: The Effect of Identity Priming on Stereotype Threat for Academically Engaged African American College Athletes

Academically engaged African American college athletes are most susceptible to stereotype threat in the classroom when the context links their unique status as both scholar and athlete. After completing a measure of academic engagement, African American and White college athletes completed a test of verbal reasoning. To vary stereotype threat, they first indicated their status as a scholar-athlete, an athlete, or as a research participant on the cover page. Compared to the other groups, academically engaged African American college athletes performed poorly on the difficult test items when primed for their athletic identity, but they performed worse on both the difficult and easy test items when primed for their identity as a scholar-athlete. The unique stereotype threat processes that affect the academic performance of minority college athletes are discussed.

Up the Down Pay Scale: Teachers vs. Football Coaches

Up the Down Pay Scale: Teachers <i>vs.</i> Football Coaches

Benching Jim Crow: the rise and fall of the color line in southern college sports, 1890-1980

Chronicling the uneven rise and slow decline of segregation in American college athletics, Charles H. Martin shows how southern colleges imposed their policies of racial exclusion on surprisingly compliant northern teams and explains the social forces that eventually forced these southern schools to accept integrated competition. Martin emphasizes not just the racism prevalent in football and basketball in the South, but the effects of this discrimination for colleges and universities all over the country. Southern teams such as the University of Alabama, University of Mississippi, and the University of North Carolina were obsessed with national recognition, but their Jim Crow policies prevented them for many years from playing against racially mixed teams from other parts of the country. Devoting special attention to the Southeastern Conference, the Atlantic Coast Conference, and teams in Texas, Martin explores the changing social attitudes and culture of competition that turned the tide and allowed for the recruitment of black players and hiring of black coaches. He takes a close look at the case of Texas Western College (now the University of Texas at El Paso), the first major white university in an ex-Confederate state to recruit African American athletes extensively. Martin skillfully weaves existing arguments and documentation on the integration of college sports with wide-ranging, original research, including previously unpublished papers and correspondence of college administrators and athletic directors uncovered in university archives.

"Ethnic Considerations in Athletics"

This article examines the racial protests by African American basketball and football players at Sacramento State College between 1969 and 1971. Harry Edwards, in his seminal work <i>The Revolt of the Black Athlete</i>, indicates that there were over 30 campus protests by Black athletes in 1968 alone. As a result of his work with the Olympic Project for Human Rights and on the behalf of African American college athletes, Edwards spoke at Sacramento State in September 1968 at a symposium during Inter-racial Week. Sacramento State College, a small state school, less renowned than many of the other large universities where protests had occurred, was part of a second wave of athletic protests. This article contributes another chapter to the stories of racial protests of Black college athletes across the country in the late 1960s and the impact these activities had on their respective college campuses, as well as the broader communities.

Sport Identity and Motivation for Sport Participation: A Comparison between American College Athletes and Austrian Student Sport Club Members

The aim of this study is to compare competition, fitness, and social motivation for sport participation between American college athletes and Austrian student sport club members. Our hypotheses are drawn from symbolic interactionist theory, and we define sport motivation as the reasons that people give for participating in sport. The respondents are 301 University of Vienna student members of Austrian sport clubs and 397 college athletes drawn from three schools in Ohio. The results indicate (a) statistically significant main effects for ANOVA comparisons between competition and fitness motivation and the factors of gender and country, (b) a statistically significant two-way interaction between social motivation and gender and country, and (c) statistically significant Pearson product moment correlations between competition and fitness motives and the involvement of self in the sport role. Thus, we conclude that motivation for sport participation is likely to be influenced by the values of the sport organization as well as the sport and gender identities of the participant.

The Crucial Issue in American College Athletics

JN SPITE of enormous crowds at intercollegiate games, the college athletic situation is deplorable and the conditions are chronic. The problems were so serious twenty years ago that the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching studied the field and reported upon the topic, American College Athletics, issued in I929. The National Collegiate Athletic Association and the College Physical Education Association are constantly studying the athletic conditions that confront them, and these conditions are characterized by such words as commercialism, subsidization, exploitation, bribery, gambling, and proselytism. Can the existing conditions be changed? Can the recognized evils be abated? Can the practice of a culture be directed into new channels? More than thirty years ago it was rather easy to change the type and quality of the then prevailing physical education. Surely nothing was more detrimental to the future welfare of American youth than the stupid posturings of the competing systems of gymnastics. But the movement for a new program of physical education succeeded everywhere in American life for the simple reason that the pattern proposed was in perfect harmony with many of the salient features of the American social scene. The effort of some Americans who believed in calisthenics and formal gymnastics never really had a chance to succeed because the ideas behind the foreign systems of gymnastics rested on the social and political doctrines of different cultures. On the contrary, the proposals for natural programs were based not only on the biologic needs of youth but also on the social scene in which they lived, a culture that admired functional physique, initiative in action, self-reliance, and the competitive features of games. This complete shift in the character of physical education in American schools and colleges was a harmonious adjustment to the culture of which it was a part, and through the years physical education prospered. Gymnasiums and athletic fields, pools and playgrounds, are as notable in sports as electric refrigerators, radios, automobiles, and the innumerable gadgets of industry are in the ordinary experiences of life. This improvement in plant, however, is no more a measure of the soundness of our program than the things of our current life reveal the welfare of the social scene around us. There are those who write despairingly about the disillusionments of modern life. Can the soul of contemporary college sport be saved? It is here contended that sport is an

The Crucial Issue in American College Athletics

The Crucial Issue in American College Athletics

The Carnegie Foundation's Study of American College Athletics–Three Years Later

The Carnegie Foundation's Study of American College Athletics–Three Years Later