Amber Road Research Articles

Celtic ‘Guardians’ of the Central Polish Section of the Amber Route

Abstract The paper aims to provide cultural and chronological analysis of the late La Tène period artefacts discovered in the Prosna and Warta interfluve. The authors attempted to categorise them and assess their character, rank and significance. As a result, some categories of items, e. g. brooches, stripe-painted pottery, mirrors or knotenringe have been found to be imports originating from the south, i. e. from the areas of dense Celtic settlement, while coinage and blacksmithing products are believed to be of local provenance. Gold coinage based on the Boii system was well attested by the finds in the Janków II settlement, where individual components of a minting workshop and numerous coins being its final product were discovered. In turn, local Celtic blacksmithing is documented by the discovery of rich graves of blacksmiths and many elements of armament occurring in the discussed area, such as double-edged long swords and spearheads decorated with cut edges and acid-etched ornaments. Additionally, research demonstrates the existence of armed warriors whose remains were discovered in the cemeteries in Wesółki and Ciecierzyn. All the above must lead to the conclusion that in the LT D2 phase, equivalent to the A3 phase of the Prosna and Warta interfluve (as evidenced by the dispersion of materials), there existed a thriving centre of power of a local Celtic rix, or successive rixes, protected by groups of armed warriors. We believe that their power and prosperity expressed in gold coinage may have stemmed from their control over a significant section of the amber route which generated sufficiently high profits.

Die Aucissafibeln in der römischen Provinz Pannonia

AbstractThe paper is dealing with 194 Aucissa brooches from 27 sites in the Roman province of Pannonia, based on the results and methodology of international archaeological and historical research. Aucissa fibulae, as costume items, are one of the leading artefacts of the early imperial period, initially used mainly by soldiers (sagum), and are therefore an important archaeological source for the Roman expansion, occupation and Romanisation. In Pannonia 98% of the Aucissa fibulae were recovered from settlements, mainly from the early layers of military forts and later towns. The material of the fibulae is bronze, there is only a single known item being silver-plated. The formal, technological and chronological analysis of the Aucissa fibulae in Pannonia is followed by a costume, historical and archaeological analysis. The Aucissa brooches in Pannonia can be dated from the beginning of the 1st century A.D. to the first decades of the 2nd century A.D. The earliest types (subtypes A242.1,2,3) are found in military forts along the Roman expansion trail. The Aucissa brooches come from the areas of the East–West military expansion route (the Drava-Save interfluve, Siscia, Sirmium, Gomolava), the North–South expansion route to the Danube (Amber Road, Salla, Savaria, Carnuntum) and the Danube limes (Brigetio, Matrica, Rittium). The smaller number of later types of fibulae (subtypes A242.4,5,6) found in the interior of the province of Pannonia (vici) indicates a process of Romanisation of the local population (Bátaszék, Csákberény, Mezőörs). The Aucissa brooches can also refer to cultural and trade relations with the Barbaricum (Púchov culture); they can indicate the movement of the Roman army (Devín, Mušov) and also the mobility of people (Veresegyház, Szeged). In some places Aucissa brooches later appeared in the clothing of civilians and women (Emona).

The contribution of amber to heritage tourism development

This article explores the relationship between amber and heritage tourism, utilizing Poland as an illustrative context. Amber, a form of fossilized resin, holds significant importance across a multitude of fields, such as science, culture, and economy, having been used as a material by artists, craftsmen, and jewelers for centuries. Today, amber draws visitors to locations where it is found and to institutions that display amber collections, such as museums and galleries. Furthermore, it is an essential component of various events, including exhibitions,fairs, and amber fishing competitions. Amber also forms the foundation of many tourist routes, such as the renowned Amber Route. Owing to its deep ties with cultural heritage, amber is considered a central attraction within amber-based heritage tourism. This paper examines the current contribution of amber to the development of heritage tourism. The authors conducted a literature analysis, online source queries, evaluations ofinstitutions (e.g., museums), and personal observations to address the topic. The article is divided into eight sections, each highlighting different aspects of the investigated subject, ultimately suggesting an adaptation of Timothy and Boyd’s (2003) model to illustrate the development of amber-based heritage tourism.

GEOTOURISM ROUTES AND GEOTOURS IN THE WEST OF UKRAINE: STATE AND DEVELOPMENT PROSPECTS

The paper analyzes the current state of geotourism routes and geotours in the west of Ukraine from the point of view of experience and practice of European geotourism. Geotourism routes are considered as a kind of thematic tourist routes with educational specialization. On the territory under study, based on the territorial coverage, there are transboundary ("Ukrainian-Polish Geo-Carpathians" and "Ignacy Lukasiewicz Oil Heritage"), national ("Amber Road"), regional ("Terra Podolica", "Beskydy Rock Formations") and local (mainly in the protected areas) routes. According to the maintenance status, they are divided into three groups: 1) built and marked, 2) built and marked near the sites, 3) not built and not built. Basically, geotourism sites here include places with geological rock outcrops, interesting forms of relief and processes, mountain constructions. It can be argued that the diverse geotourism network is at the initial stage of its development in the region. Thanks to the activity of NGOs, the region is developing comprehensive geoproducts – geotours to gypsum caves of Podillia, mineral resources of Precarpathia, rock formations of Podillia and the Carpathians. Some geotourism sites are included in comprehensive (natural and cultural) tours of regional travel agencies. Eco-educational trails with detailed presentation of geoheritage sites are functioning in the national and landscape parks of the region. Based on the methodological foundations of the geotourism discipline and the European practice of planning and introducing geotourism products, a promising network of diverse geotourism routes and geotours has been developed for the western Ukraine. The trajectory and route of promising transboundary (in particular "Geo-Roztochchia"), national ("Ukrainian Carpathian Geostrada") and a number of regional and local geotourism routes have been proposed. Many proposed regional and local geological and geomorphologic routes can form the basis for the development of appropriate geotours by community-based and commercial structures. To implement the European experience of geotourism routes and geotours development for Ukrainian context, it is necessary to carry out a number of scientific, educational and organizational activities. They include a comprehensive inventory of geotourism sites, provision of informational and educational support for geotour visitors, training for geointerpreters for excursion support as well as strategic and operational management to serve tourists and the preservation and promotion of geoheritage sites. Keywords: geotourism; tourist routes; geotours; geostrada; western Ukraine.

Trade, use, offer. The hoard of Bánov – “Skalky” (CZ)

Hoards disappeared from the regions of the “heart” of Hallstatt Europe. As for the peripheral areas, which include Moravia, the situation was different. The elite Hallstatt hoard from Bánov – “Skalky”, Uherské Hradiště District (CZ), dating to 575–550 BCE, proves that some regions did not abandon their “old Bronze-Age habits”. The hoard is among the most exclusive set of discoveries dating to the Hallstatt Period found in the Czech Republic. Its 1.500–2.000 pieces of amber beads represent the largest individual prehistoric set of amber in the Czech Republic. In the 6th century BCE, the eastern part of what is now the Czech Republic (Moravia) was the primary transit region of the Baltic amber to the Mediterranean. Extensive barter trade took place along the route of the Amber Road. Included in the Bánov hoard were exclusive women’s jewellery items which were evidently exchanged for amber. It is a set of dragon fibulae from contemporary Slovenia. This article describes the circumstances of the discovery, offers a detailed catalogue of the findings, introduces a chronological-typological analysis of the inventory and proposes the origin of the artefacts. An analysis of the composition and origin of glass by Scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS) and of amber by IR spectrometry was carried out in this study. Chemical analysis of glass determined the colouring agents and the composition, which points to the possible origin of the analysed items. While amber corresponds to the Baltic spectrum, analysis of the glass revealed surprising findings. Most of the beads do not correspond to the expected natron glass type but to an older mixed alkali type. Furthermore, an overview of the deposition of hoards in Moravia and the methodology of studying the deposition is presented. A model of long-distance trade on the Amber Road and its chronological background are also outlined. The authors discuss the social structure, elites, long-distance trade on trade routes north of the East Hallstatt culture region, and the assumed ceremony surrounding the creation of hoards.

The Role of the Road in Settling a Mountainous Region

Abstract Although fertile soil is rare in central Slovakia, the region is rich in raw minerals, a resource exploited since the Palaeolithic. Maintaining trade through a reliable network of safe routes across the mountainous landscape was of vital importance, and the remains of roads that connected this mining area to the rest of the world can still be found. Furthermore, the south–north route connecting these resources with the Carpathian Basin in the south and the Vistula River Basin in the north may have played an important role as a possible bypass to the well-known Amber Road. By combining walkthrough surveys and high-resolution LiDAR data, the paths of single roads can be reconstructed and analysed in relation to the main routes. Furthermore, by applying the geographic information system-based spatial context of settlement structures, analyses can be performed on whether routes passing through certain areas caused the establishment of settlements or whether the routes were built to connect the established sites with the rest of the road network. Finally, defining ancient route planning strategies can help answer the question of how the main routes affect settlement patterns.

The lords of the Amber Road: amber storage, distribution and processing in the early Iron Age and the La Tène period

Abstract In its early Iron Age heyday, amber items were in widespread use all along the Amber Road. The amount, type and deposition patterns of the amber accessories varied between the particular traditions, reaching lavish standards in some of the Hallstatt graves. As the disintegration of the Hallstatt communities north of the Sudetes disrupted the connection between the Baltic coast societies and the La Tène civilisation in the south, the early La Tène period saw a dramatic decline in the amber exchange and a significant decrease in the amount of amber deposited in archaeological contexts. While in the north the amber gradually fell into disfavour, the La Tène civilisation had never abandoned it. At the same time, its deposition contexts, distribution and symbolic load seem to have changed over time.

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) characteristics of ancient amber artifacts of the Han Dynasty from Hunan, China

Here we analyze four ancient amber artifacts of the Han Dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE) by using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to reveal their origins. The FTIR results showed the presence of the Baltic shoulder band between 1210–1150 cm-1 and the weak absorption peak near 888 cm-1, so all amber artifacts analyzed here can be classified as succinite originating from the Baltic Sea area (or also Bitterfield or Ukrainian ambers which are Baltic amber coevals). Ancient amber could have been traded from the Baltic area to the Mediterranean via the amber road, and then to the East Asia along the Silk Road. Such exotic materials represent a key for the study of long-distance trade across cultures during ancient times. Very few ancient amber samples excavated in China have been analyzed scientifically so far, and more work is required.

Central Sites and the Development of Rural Settlements from the Middle to Late La Tène Period in Central Moravia

At a certain point in time, there were two central places in central Moravia: an older unfortified central agglomeration near the present-day village of Němčice nad Hanou and a younger oppidum at Staré Hradisko. Each of this centres had its own approach to raw materials, orientation of the socio-economic contacts, and possibly political focus as well. Němčice, being located at one of the main branches of the Amber Road, connected the Middle Danube area from the Mediterranean to the Adriatic; Staré Hradisko eventually expanded these contacts into a systematic trade network, being under the strong influence of the Bohemian region with links to Bavaria. During the LT C2, in addition to the location of the central place, changes took place in terms of material culture and settlement strategies in the region. This was further accentuated in LT D1 by the shift of settlements towards the west, to the vicinity of the oppidum and, at the same time, vacation of the corridor around the Morava River. In an attempt to chronologically assess the settlement pattern, it became evident how important it is to define, as precisely as possible, the dating of individual sites. This was only possible thanks to the detailed and extensive study of the material available (Čižmář 2018). Thanks to precise dating of settlements and classification based on the new chronology, the seemingly illogical group of settlements in central Moravia revealed a distinct settlement network which, in particular during the period contemporary with the oppidum, allows us to see the significant changes in the number of sites and in the orientation of long-distance contacts that were possibly associated with historical events.

ПРОИСХОЖДЕНИЕ ГОЛОВНЫХ ВЕНЧИКОВ В ДРЕВНОСТЯХ ЭСТИЕВ И ПРУССОВ

The archaeological material of the south-eastern Baltic States contains several rare specimens of typeset head corollas for the antiquities of the Western Balts. The conclusions obtained as a result of the analysis of the head corollas of the Western Balts of the I-XIV centuries can be presented as follows: 1. Northern European masters at the beginning of our era created their own versions of head wreaths, based on examples of ancient votive wreaths. The latter were used both in triumphal events and at the burial of notable members of ancient society. It remains unclear under what conditions the Scandinavians could adopt the idea of a votive wreath, reworking it in the form of head corollas. 2. In phase B1, individual representatives of the northern tribes appear on Sambia, who brought crowns with them to the Amber Coast as part of the matrimonial "import", which were attached in especially solemn (cult ?) in cases of head covering. 3. In Roman times, head crowns did not find their place in the material culture of the population of the western outskirts of the Baltic world. In the early Middle Ages, through the mediation of master jewelers of south-eastern Europe, the tradition of wearing corollas made using Byzantine traditions spread in the Baltic States. It is possible that these traditions came to the Baltic States with groups of artisans along the Vislin trade route – the ancient Great Amber Road.

“Minor” Aquileian Families Between Noricum and Pannonia

SummaryThe paper deals with the presence of North-eastern Italic families in Northern Pannonia. Through a selection of the epigraphic texts based on the information provided by the texts and the chronology, it is possible to investigate the spreading of Italic traders’ families from Italy, Noricum and Emona to the cities on the north tract of the “Amber Route” and the Balaton Lake area.

Commodus restitutor commerciorum. The role of Palmyrene Trading Community at Porolissum

The author revisits an inscription found in 1986 in the shrine of the customs station at Porolissum (Jac village, Sălaj County, Romania). His new approach offers a new meaning to the epithet restitutor commerciorum addresed to emperor Commodus in the text of the inscription: commercium has in Latin written sources and in inscriptions also the sense of the place where barbarians were trading with the Romans in the vicinity of the Roman frontiers’ forts. The new interpretation is linked with the archaeological discovery at Porolissum, near the customs building of a marketplace identified by 129 coins and 43 barbarian brooches. Author’s conclusion in an earlier published book is that the brooches attest, very probable, a slave market. Another valuable merchandise recovered in the excavation is raw amber of Baltic Sea coast origin, proving the existence of a branch of the Amber Road, entering in the Empire at Porolissum. The next question approached by the author concerns the merchants able to support the distribution of these valuable goods across the Empire. He proposed as main candidate the Palmyrene civilian community recorded in the inscriptions at Porolissum. Then he explains the topographical position of the Palmyrene cult complex at Porolissum. The temple of Bel, the open=air altar and the banqueting hall were situated in the near neighbourhood of the customs building just because of the Palmyrene community’s economic interest. He argued his hypothesis with the example of the Palmyrene temple in Rome.

Mycenaean and Egyptian faience beads discovered in southern Poland

Four faience beads discovered in southern Poland, in graves dated to roughly 1600–1100 BCE, have been the object of an archaeometric study, four with the LA-ICP-MS method and one additionally with the EPMA method. Two beads have good formal parallels from territories associated with Mycenaean culture. The material of which they were made combines features of the previously distinguished groups A and B of Mycenaean faience. The faience discovered in Poland ties it in with faiences of group A by the use of soda-rich plant ashes as a fluxing agent, whereas a similar cobalt ore colorant links it to group B. The other two beads were made most probably in Egypt, considering the use of a similar alkali raw material (halophyte plant ash) and an alum (source of cobalt) as colorant in one case. The beads must have reached the territory of Poland from the Eastern Mediterranean most probably through Italy and up the so-called Amber Road.

AN ATTEMPT TO INVESTIGATE THE IMPACT OF SELECTED INFRASTRUCTURE INVESTMENTS ON THE POTENTIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE BIGGEST EUROPEAN CITIES. APPLICATION OF THE SHIFTING MODEL (INTERVENING OPPORTUNITIES MODEL TYPE)

Przedmiotem niniejszego artykułu jest symulacyjne badanie dyfuzji zmian gospodarczych, oparte na ugruntowanym modelu pośrednich możliwości. Użyty algorytm umożliwił detekcję makroregionów europejskich, w których istnieje wyraźnie podwyższony potencjał rozwoju wielobranżowych klastrów gospodarczych. Eksperymenty symulacyjne wykonano w dwóch seriach: dla prognozy wpływu działania Centralnego Portu Komunikacyjnego oraz dla działania CPK łącznie z budowaną jednocześnie Via Carpatia (czyli tzw. “Nowym Szlakiem Bursztynowym”). W niniejszym artykule staraliśmy się odpowiedzieć na pytanie: które rejony Europy najwięcej zyskają działaniu Centralnego Portu Komunikacyjnego?
 Osiągnięte przez nas wyniki eksperymentów symulacyjnych potwierdziły znaczną bezwładność systemu gospodarczego Europy w zakresie formowania centrów i klastrów, w tym trwałość kondycji rejonów najwyżej rozwiniętych

Science versus Archaeology? The Case of the Bernstorf Fakes.

Although scientific methods are frequently applied in archaeology and are often considered as indispensable, their results do not always agree with archaeological expectations. This can usually be resolved by detailed discussions and by acknowledging the potentials and limitations of the different approaches. To do this it is necessary to accept the competence and experience of each other and, foremost, accept and understand the different methodologies. Here a case is presented, in which such a conundrum could in principle be solved but archaeological arguments are given a priori more weight and discomforting scientific results are thus suppressed. The case deals with a number of decorated gold foils and pieces of amber that were found near a Late Bronze Age structure at the hamlet of Bernstorf near the small town of Kranzberg, Lkr. Freising, in Bavaria. They were interpreted as clear evidence for contacts between Mycenae and Bavaria in the Late Bronze Age and it was suggested that the gold derives from Egypt. It was also maintained that this find would corroborate the widely accepted hypothesis of an “amber road” and a link between the Mediterranean cultures and Central Europe. Analyses of the Bernstorf gold showed it to be exceptionally pure which is not only unknown in natural gold but also in all prehistoric gold objects hitherto analyzed. It was therefore concluded that the finds from Bernstorf were made from modern gold foil, which is supported by radiocarbon dates of soil intentionally enveloping an amber “seal” containing gold foil of similar composition. However, this unavoidable conclusion is dismissed by some archaeologist, claiming that “mere chemical analysis” and “a chemist” cannot decide on the authenticity of an object and that archaeological reasoning has to be given priority.

TEACHING LATVIAN AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE IN THE MULTILINGUAL CLASSROOM: EXPERIENCE OF HUNGARY

Multilingualism has been highly valued in the society from ancient times. Nowadays, along with the increase of people mobility and technology development, foreign languages competence and its acquisition learning becomes increasingly important. At the same time, minority language studies, taking into account a relatively small number of their users, provide the necessary contribution to the preservation and further development of the cultural heritage of the world nations. For example, the goal of the Department for Uralic Studies, Savaria Campus of the University of West Hungary, was to create a special unit and invite specialists in order to study and promote the Central European region, its culture, as well as the ancient Amber Route that stretched from the East coast of the Baltic Sea to the Adriatic coast and the Apennine Peninsula. From 1992 to 2013, this unit offered students an opportunity to learn Latvian as a foreign language, as well as the history of Latvia and its culture, Latvian literature, folklore and ethnogenesis. This article, based on the author's personal experience, is devoted to the specifics of learning and teaching of the Latvian language to Hungarian students, as well as translating the works of the Latvian authors into Hungarian.

Casus Casuriusa. W kwestii napływu środkowogalijskich naczyń na obszar Barbaricum w okresie wojen markomańskich

Casus Casuriusa. W kwestii napływu środkowogalijskich naczyń na obszar Barbaricum w okresie wojen markomańskich

Hill-Forts from the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age in Pomerania: An Overlooked Problem

Although hill-forts from the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age associated with Lusatian culture appear in vast areas of modern Poland, they are absent in Pomerania beside the Lower Oder region. This scarcity is surprising, especially taking into account the relatively numerous appearances of hill-forts in Greater Poland, the region directly neighbouring Pomerania to the south. On the other hand, investigations conducted in the 1960s and 1970s to verify Pomeranian hill-forts described as originating from the Early Medieval and Medieval periods resulted in the detection of at least a dozen sites with material from the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age. The aim of this paper is to present the problem of the supposed presence of Lusatian culture hill-forts in the central part of Polish Pomerania. It is highly probable that this kind of settlement played an important role in interregional contacts between eastern and western parts of Pomerania, together with Greater Poland and probably also Nordic Bronze Age zones. In a wider perspective, their role in the course and working of the Amber Road at the end of the Bronze Age should also be taken into account and investigated. It seems that new tools available for archaeologists, like Lidar data, modern geophysics and aerial photography, may provide new openings and new perspectives on research into this case study. Key words: Central Pomerania, Lusatian culture, Late Bronze Age, Early Iron Age, hill-forts, fortified settlements, trade/exchange routes, archaeological cartography. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15181/ab.v24i0.1565

Environmental conditions as a key factor in the functioning of wells at a settlement from the Roman period of the Iron Age

The article deals with geological and geomorphological conditions of the construction and functioning of wells from the Roman period of the Iron Age in a settlement on the Amber Road. This settlement is located in Central Poland (in the vicinity of Kwiatków village), on a flat surface of the lower terrace of the Warta River valley, among the dry channels of numerous streams cutting the terrace, which developed in three generations, from the Younger Dryas onwards. In the Holocene, the area was characterised by an abundance of flowing water in a multichannel system and the stability of the groundwater table. Among the archaeological features discovered there, the most interesting is a large complex of well-preserved wells dated to the early Roman period. The structures of the wells were based or dug in an organic series which constituted the terrace profile at a depth of between 2.0 and 2.5 m, dated to the late Alleröd and the Younger Dryas. In the study, the authors focus on the purpose of locating a large number of wells within a relatively small area abundant with numerous streams. The authors used a range of methods, including lithological and textural analyses, a geochronological analysis and a geochemical examination to describe the properties of the deposits and the quality of the waters. The characteristics of the wells were provided from dendrochronological studies. The archaeological approach included an analysis of the features morphology and the stage of technological advancement, as well as the diversity of the wells’ casings. The spatial and functional relationships of the locations of the wells were also given special attention.

The Amber Road: Cross-Border Trade and the Regulation of the Burmite Market in Tengchong, Yunnan

AbstractThis paper investigates the new and hitherto unstudied boom in cross-border Burmese amber (Burmite) trade between Myanmar and Tengchong, Yunnan province. Based on interviews with amber dealers and local officials, it describes how since 2012–13 the amber trade has become increasingly lucrative for Chinese and Myanmar traders, and has attracted a large number of people to Tengchong, which, within Yunnan, virtually monopolises the trade. After a brief historical introduction, the paper analyses the conditions that, in both countries, have made the Burmite trade boom possible. It further describes the current composition of the amber market in both Myanmar and China, before analysing recent attempts to monitor and regulate the amber trade through the institution of the Tengchong Amber Association by the city's main amber traders in collaboration with local authorities.