Amazonian Epoch Research Articles

A probable ancient nearshore zone in southern Utopia on Mars unveiled from observations at the Zhurong landing area

The Chinese Mars rover Zhurong successfully landed in southern Utopia Planitia on Mars in May 2021. Previous research suggested a Hesperian ocean may have existed in the northern lowland on Mars. Recent research observed water-related features at the Zhurong landing site from in situ data. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive geomorphological analysis of the landing area using remote sensing data, supplemented by in situ observations, and unveiled features consistent with the existence of a nearshore zone in southern Utopia. Different types of water-related geomorphological features were separated by specific topographic contours, suggesting different types of marine environments. The area was subdivided into a foreshore highland-lowland transition unit, a shallow marine unit and a deep marine unit. In situ observations including sedimentary deposit rocks, water-related lamination features, and subsurface sedimentary layers, also indicate past water activities. Results suggested an evolution scenario of the nearshore zone in southern Utopia: (1) Flooding of the Utopia Planitia in Late Noachian around 3.65–3.68 Ga reached the foreshore unit; (2) formation of the shallow and deep marine units after the flooding was completed by about 3.5 Ga and 3.42 Ga in Early Hesperian, respectively; (3) gradual loss of subsurface volatiles during the Amazonian epoch.

Alkali Trace Elements Observed by MarSCoDe LIBS at Zhurong Landing Site on Mars: Quantitative Analysis and Its Geological Implications

AbstractMars Surface Composition Detector (MarSCoDe) is one of the important payloads carried by the Zhurong rover, China's first Mars exploration mission Tianwen‐1. The laser‐induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) instrument of MarSCoDe is mainly used to detect major and trace elements on the surface of Mars. The quantitative analysis of alkali trace elements, namely lithium (Li), strontium (Sr), and rubidium (Rb), holds significance in unraveling the geological evolution of the Zhurong landing site. This study focuses on establishing univariate calibration models using MarSCoDe LIBS spectra from 84 samples tested in the ground laboratory. The accuracy of these models, within a few parts per million (ppm), was subsequently validated through the analysis of 12 onboard MarSCoDe Calibration Targets (MCCTs). With these models, Li, Sr, and Rb concentrations in the surface targets during the initial 300 sols (Martian days) traverse were determined. These concentrations ranged from 6 to 18, 106–628, and 22–87 ppm, respectively. Our results suggest that Li, Sr, and Rb are mainly related to the igneous rock components in the rocks and soils at the Zhurong landing site. The major secondary minerals in MarSCoDe scientific targets are likely small amounts of sulfates, which appear to have formed from the acidic weathering of recent surface brine. Clay minerals are likely either absent or very sparse in the scientific targets. The surface igneous materials at the landing site likely have originated from the most recent lava flow during the Amazonian epoch.

Long‐Lived and Continual Volcanic Eruptions, Tectonic Activity, Pit Chains Formation, and Boulder Avalanches in Northern Tharsis Region: Implications for Late Amazonian Geodynamics and Seismo‐Tectonic Processes on Mars

AbstractTharsis is the largest volcanic province on Mars. It consists of a few large shield volcanoes, one of which is Alba Mons (AM), located in northern Tharsis, with the Ceraunius Fossae (CF) graben system to the south of it. Previous workers argued in favor of episodic building of Tharsis volcanoes. In contrast, we show that volcanism in the AM and CF regions occurred continually, at least in the last few hundred million years, based on ages of >1,000 stratigraphically young lava flows. Central volcanism in AM terminated around 200 Ma, while subsequent young volcanism, fed by both small shields and fissures, migrated to the south in CF. Several generations of grabens hosting thousands of simple to complex pit chains were formed by magmatic intrusion through feeder dikes, and these activities also migrated to the south during the Late Amazonian epoch. Thousands of boulder avalanches mark the slopes of grabens, pit chains, and impact craters, with ages ranging from a few tens to thousands of years. The local geological settings of the boulder falls suggest that both tectonic and volcanic marsquakes triggered the boulder avalanches. The broad zone of boulder falls in northern Tharsis defines the potential epicentral zone of (MW 4.1) 18 September 2021 marsquake. We infer that long‐lived and active magma chambers and subcrustal magma underplating driven by a mantle plume are present beneath the AM volcano and that these probably migrated south toward CF in the Late Amazonian epoch.

Empirical H/V spectral ratios at the InSight landing site and implications for the martian subsurface structure

SUMMARY The horizontal-to-vertical (H/V) spectral ratio inversion is a traditional technique for deriving the local subsurface structure on Earth. We calculated the H/V from the ambient vibrations at different wind levels at the InSight landing site, on Mars, and also computed the H/V from the S-wave coda of the martian seismic events (marsquakes). Different H/V curves were obtained for different wind periods and from the marsquakes. From the ambient vibrations, the recordings during low-wind periods are close to the instrument self-noise level. During high-wind periods, the seismic recordings are highly contaminated by the interaction of the lander with the wind and the martian ground. Therefore, these recordings are less favourable for traditional H/V analysis. Instead, the recordings of the S-wave coda of marsquakes were preferred to derive the characteristic H/V curve of this site between 0.4 and 10 Hz. The final H/V curve presents a characteristic trough at 2.4 Hz and a strong peak at 8 Hz. Using a full diffuse wavefield approach as the forward computation and the Neighbourhood Algorithm as the sampling technique, we invert for the 1-D shear wave velocity structure at the InSight landing site. Based on our inversion results, we propose a strong site effect at the InSight site to be due to the presence of a shallow high-velocity layer (SHVL) over low-velocity units. The SHVL is likely placed below a layer of coarse blocky ejecta and can be associated with Early Amazonian basaltic lava flows. The units below the SHVL have lower velocities, possibly related to a Late Hesperian or Early Amazonian epoch with a different magmatic regime and/or a greater impact rate and more extensive weathering. An extremely weak buried low velocity layer (bLVL) between these lava flows explains the data around the 2.4 Hz trough, whereas a more competent bLVL would not generate this latter feature. These subsurface models are in good agreement with results from hammering experiment and compliance measurements at the InSight landing site. Finally, this site effect is revealed only by seismic events data and explains the larger horizontal than vertical ground motion recorded for certain type of marsquakes.

A billion or more years of possible periglacial/glacial cycling in Protonilus Mensae, Mars

The long-term cyclicity and temporal succession of glacial-periglacial (or deglacial) periods or epochs are keynotes of Quaternary geology on Earth. Relatively recent work has begun to explore the histories of the mid- to higher-latitudinal terrain of Mars, especially in the northern hemisphere, for evidence of similar cyclicity and succession in the Mid to Late Amazonian Epoch.Here, we carry on with this work by focusing on Protonilus Mensae [PM] (43–490 N, 37–590 E). More specifically, we discuss, describe and evaluate an area within PM that straddles a geological contact between two ancient units: [HNt], a Noachian-Hesperian Epoch transition unit; and [eHT] an early Hesperian Epoch transition unit. Dark-toned terrain within the eHt unit (HiRISE image ESP_028457_2255) shows continuous coverage by structures akin to clastically-sorted circles [CSCs]. The latter are observed in permafrost regions on Earth where the freeze-thaw cycling of surface and/or near-surface water is commonplace and cryoturbation is not exceptional.The crater-size frequency distribution of the dark-toned terrain suggests a minimum age of ~100 Ma and a maximum age of ~1 Ga. The age estimates of the candidate CSCs fall within this dispersion. Geochronologically, this places the candidate CSCs among the oldest periglacial landforms identified on Mars so far, by at least one and possibly two orders of magnitude.Unit HNt is adjacent to unit eHt and shows surface material that is relatively light in tone. The coverage is topographically irregular and, at some locations, discontinuous. Amidst the light-toned surface, structures are observed that are akin to clastically non-sorted polygons [NSPs] and polygonised thermokarst-depressions on Earth. Terrestrial polygon/thermokarst assemblages occur in permafrost regions where the freeze thaw cycling of surface and/or near-surface water is commonplace and the permafrost is ice-rich. The crater-size frequency distribution of the light-toned terrain suggests a minimum age of ~10 Ma and a maximum age of ~100 Ma. The age estimates of the candidate ice-rich assemblages fall within this dispersion. Geochronologically, this places them well beyond the million-year ages associated with most of the other candidate ice-rich assemblages reported in the literature.Stratigraphically intertwined with the two possible periglacial terrains are landforms and landscape features (observed or unobserved but modelled) that are indicative of relatively recent glaciation (~10 Ma - 100 Ma) and glaciation long past (≥ ~ 1 Ga) to decametres of depth: glacier-(cirque) like features; viscous-flow features, lobate-debris aprons; moraine-like ridges at the fore, sides and midst of the aprons; and, patches of irregularly shaped (and possibly volatile-depleted) small-sized ridge/trough assemblages. Collectively, this deeply-seated intertwining of glacial and periglacial cycles suggests that the Mid to Late Amazonian Epochs might be more Earth-like in their cold-climate geology than has been thought hitherto.

Dynamics of recent landslides (

Landslides are common features found on steep slopes on Mars and the role of water in their formation is an open question. Our study focuses on three young martian landslides whose mechanism of formation is unknown and knowing their formation mechanism could give us key information on recent martian climate and/or tectonics. They are less than 5 ​km long, and formed during the Late Amazonian Epoch, with an age <20 ​Ma when Mars is thought to have had a hyperarid climate. To better understand the dynamics and formation mechanism of these landslides, we combine two approaches: geomorphic comparison between martian and terrestrial landslides using remote sensing data from the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) and the Colour and Stereo Surface Imaging System (CaSSIS), and numerical modelling using a dry granular flow dynamical model. Our geomorphic analysis revealed two contrasting morphologies suggesting differing dynamics and formation mechanisms. Two of the three martian landslides resemble terrestrial rockslides, while the third is more akin to terrestrial mudslides. The numerical modelling, although not fully conclusive, broadly supports our interpretations from the morphological observations. We suggest that the two landslides resembling terrestrial rockslides could have been triggered by shaking by meteorite impact or marsquakes in the absence of water. On the contrary, we suggest liquid water (originating from ground-ice melted by geothermal heat flux) may have been involved in the initiation of the landslide resembling a terrestrial mudslide. Our results show the value of using morphological comparison between martian and terrestrial landslides combined with numerical modelling to inform the hypotheses of landslide-formation on Mars where in situ analysis is not usually possible.

A New Constraint on the Physicochemical Condition of Mars Surface during the Amazonian Epoch Based on Chemical Speciation for Secondary Minerals in Martian Nakhlites

Iddingsite in Martian nakhlites contains various secondary minerals that reflect water–rock interaction on Mars. However, the formation processes of secondary Fe minerals in iddingsite are unclear because they include carbonates precipitated under reductive and alkaline conditions and sulfates that are generally precipitated under oxidative and acidic conditions. Mineral types cannot coexist under equilibrium. Herein, we characterize the carbonate phase of meteorite Yamato 000593 as siderite and Mn-bearing siderite via field-emission electron probe microanalyzer (FE-EPMA). Then, we examined the distribution and speciation of trace Cr and S within the carbonates through synchrotron micro-focused X-ray fluorescence-X-ray absorption fine structure and scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (μ-XRF-XAFS/STXM) analysis to estimate the transition history of Eh-pH conditions during siderite formation to explain the coexistence of carbonate and sulfate phases in the nakhlite vein. Specifically, the distribution and speciation of S in the mesostasis and carbonate phases and the heterogeneous distribution of Mn-FeCO3 incorporating Cr(III) in the carbonate constrain the Eh-pH condition. The conditions and transition of the fluid chemistry determined herein based on speciation of various elements provide a new constraint on the physicochemical condition of the water that altered the nakhlite body during the Amazonian epoch.

Reconstructing the infilling history within Robert Sharp crater, Mars: Insights from morphology and stratigraphy

Recent mineralogical studies suggest past aqueous activities in the 150-km-wide Robert Sharp impact crater, the western neighbor of Gale crater on Mars. Despite their mineralogical similarities, Robert Sharp and Gale craters display very different morphologies. Using high-resolution orbital images, we made morphological and stratigraphical analyses, as well as age determinations showing that Robert Sharp has experienced a complex geological history. This includes the formation of fretted terrain and the deposition of airfall material during the early – middle Hesperian epoch. The presence of valleys, fan deltas, and numerous aqueous minerals indicates fluviolacustrine episodes during the Hesperian epoch that persisted episodically until the Amazonian epoch between 1.3 Ga and 500 Ma. Thus, Robert Sharp and Gale craters have experienced contemporaneous aqueous phases possibly up to two billions years after the lacustrine environment recorded by the Curiosity rover within Gale crater.

Ice-rich landforms of the southern mid-latitudes of Mars: A case study in Nereidum Montes

Mapping of Viscous Flow Features (VFFs), a general grouping of ice-rich flow features that includes Lobate Debris Aprons (LDA), Concentric Crater Fill (CCF), Lineated Valley Flow (LVF), small lobate flows (i.e., glacier-like flows, or GLFs), and arcuate ridges, in the southern hemisphere of Mars shows a dense concentration in Nereidum Montes, along the northern rim of Argyre basin. Further mapping within a subregion in northwest Nereidum Montes (45.3°–48.5° S, 307°–312° E) shows a large number of well-preserved VFFs and ice-rich mantling deposits. Processed SHARAD data across a VFF within the region indicates that it is composed of nearly pure water ice.Model ages obtained from crater counts and their associated size-frequency distributions (SFDs) on both ice-rich mantling deposits and small lobate VFFs suggest that the deposits stabilized several to tens of Ma ago in the Late Amazonian Epoch, and that small lobate VFFs likely formed due to the mobilization of mantling deposits. SFD for a larger VFF shows a model age of 100 s of Ma, consistent with ages for LDAs in eastern Hellas. Deposition of ice in Nereidum Montes that led to the formation of VFFs likely occurred during periods of high obliquity in the Late Amazonian.Our results show that VFFs have more complete and diverse preservation states in Nereidum Montes than similar features in other regions on Mars. This region contains uniquely well-preserved mantling deposits above arcuate ridges and beyond the margins of lobate VFFs and gully aprons. This key observation ties arcuate ridges to the flow of mantling deposits, part of a continuum model for mid-latitude ice-rich landforms.

Evidence for Multiple Superposed Fluvial Deposits Within Reuyl Crater, Mars

AbstractReuyl is an 85‐km‐diameter crater located east of the Aeolis Dorsa region. We present results from geomorphic mapping and high‐resolution image analyses of Reuyl to understand the provenance of alluvial fans, superposed deposits, channels, and sinuous ridges. We distinguish 29 fans or other deposits associated with channels based on their characteristics. Two sinuous ridges are associated with the alluvial fans formed between the wall and peak region. On the southern floor, a sinuous ridge associated with an alluvial fan with channel inversion is orthogonally superposed by another wall‐originated fan deposit. On the western floor, a sinuous ridge associated with an alluvial fan is superposed by wall‐originated deposits. We also observe bajadas, stacked deposits, deposits with incised channels, and overlapping fan ridges, which suggest diverse and long‐lived depositional activity related to a fluvial environment. The central peak is surrounded by a mound deposit with several discontinuous channels. One large fan from the western wall appears more intact than the others, being less eroded and lacking ridges. Reuyl aged as ~3.63 Ga, whereas the first‐order analysis of the fan deposits implies ~3.5 Ga and the large intact deposit is estimated to belong to the Amazonian epoch. We suggest that Reuyl crater likely witnessed and recorded the transition from alluvial fan to large younger intact deposits, which possibly suggests a decrease in water/volatile‐related activity and/or change in sediment supply. Overall, the diverse superposed fan deposits within Reuyl reveal noncoeval activity and provide comprehensive evidence for long‐lived fluvial activity during the post‐Noachian epoch.

Possible (closed system) pingo and ice-wedge/thermokarst complexes at the mid latitudes of Utopia Planitia, Mars

On Earth, hydrostatic or closed-system pingos (CSPs) are perennial ice-cored mounds formed by the freeze-thaw cycling of water when or as thermokarst lakes lose their water by drainage or evaporation. The mounds vary in shape from circular or sub-circular to elongate, are sub-kilometre in their long axes, and may reach decametres in height. Often, the mounds show summit depressions, radial fractures and single tiers or benches. As the CSPs degrade, small-scale debris flows or slumps occur; end-stage degradation typically exhibits debris-laden ramparts elevated metres above the surrounding terrain.Typically, the CSPs originate and develop where deep and continuous permafrost is ice-rich, i.e. infused with excess ice, as it is in the Tuktoyaktuk Coastlands of northern Canada, mid to northern Alaska and northeast Russia. In these areas or regions the terrain often is populated by: a) thermokarst lakes and alases (thermokarst lake basins absent of water); b) fields of small-scale ice-wedge polygons (either low-centred or high-centred relative to the polygon margins); and, c) melt-water filled or emptied polygon-margin troughs or -corner pits. Individual troughs and pits connected by means of the local topographical gradient comprises beaded stream systems or networks.Here, we report, describe and discuss a suite of candidate CSPs at the mid-latitudes of Utopia Planitia (UP) (~35-50° N; ~80-115° E). The morphologies, scale and height of the Martian mounds, as well as the surface textures and characteristics, landscape features and spatially-associated landforms, are consistent with the CSPs observed in ice-rich regions on Earth.The UP mounds are nested in or reside adjacent to: flat-floored, possibly thermokarstic depressions; small-scale polygons (some of which exhibit low or high centres relative to their margins); and, connected polygon-margin depressions or pits that mirror beaded-stream systems in ice-rich terrain on Earth. The size-frequency distribution of craters in our study region precludes a surface younger than ~100 Ma. Thus, the CSP-like mounds in UP and the pre-mound periglacial-revisions of the landscape presented by us may be markers of freeze-thaw cycling that occurred much earlier in the Amazonian Epoch than most of the current discussions about periglaciation in UP suggest.

Recent seismicity in Valles Marineris, Mars: Insights from young faults, landslides, boulder falls and possible mud volcanoes

Current seismicity of Mars is poorly known. Geodynamic models and analysis of surface faults indicate that Mars could be seismically active globally, particularly within the Tharsis region. However, published geologic constraints on such activity are sparse. In this study, we use geomorphologic observations and crater size–frequency age determinations gleaned from high-resolution orbiter data to demonstrate that the Valles Marineris region is recently seismo-tectonically active. The chasmata shows evidence of reactivated dip-slip faults that cross-cut the chasmata walls and floors and indicates up to 1–2 km total vertical displacement along the trough bounding faults. More than 16000 boulder fall occurrences with pristine trails are observed throughout the chasmata wall with an average slope of 25 degrees. The boulder falls are interpreted to have been triggered by recent seismic shaking from the shallow marsquakes occurring along the chasmata faults, possibly in the last thousands of years. Synthetic ground motion models indicate several MW 4–6 marsquakes at shallow depths (∼1–6 km) are required to produce these canyon-wide boulder falls. In addition, the presence of many young landslides (22–790 Ma) proximal to the reactivated trough bounding faults and formation of thousands of possible mud volcanic cones throughout the chasmata floor all suggest marsquake-triggered shaking in the past tens to hundreds of million years, corresponding to Late to Middle Amazonian Epochs. We estimate formation of 20 m to 1.3 km diameter fresh impact craters around the chasmata had negligible contribution to the recent seismicity. Therefore, Valles Marineris tectonism is an important source of marsquakes that may be readily detectable by the upcoming InSight seismometers.

Geologic history of Martian regolith breccia Northwest Africa 7034: Evidence for hydrothermal activity and lithologic diversity in the Martian crust

AbstractThe timing and mode of deposition for Martian regolith breccia Northwest Africa (NWA) 7034 were determined by combining petrography, shape analysis, and thermochronology. NWA 7034 is composed of igneous, impact, and brecciated clasts within a thermally annealed submicron matrix of pulverized crustal rocks and devitrified impact/volcanic glass. The brecciated clasts are likely lithified portions of Martian regolith with some evidence of past hydrothermal activity. Represented lithologies are primarily ancient crustal materials with crystallization ages as old as 4.4 Ga. One ancient zircon was hosted by an alkali‐rich basalt clast, confirming that alkalic volcanism occurred on Mars very early. NWA 7034 is composed of fragmented particles that do not exhibit evidence of having undergone bed load transport by wind or water. The clast size distribution is similar to terrestrial pyroclastic deposits. We infer that the clasts were deposited by atmospheric rainout subsequent to a pyroclastic eruption(s) and/or impact event(s), although the ancient ages of igneous components favor mobilization by impact(s). Despite ancient components, the breccia has undergone a single pervasive thermal event at 500–800°C, evident by groundmass texture and concordance of ~1.5 Ga dates for bulk rock K‐Ar, U‐Pb in apatite, and U‐Pb in metamict zircons. The 1.5 Ga age is likely a thermal event that coincides with rainout/breccia lithification. We infer that the episodic process of regolith lithification dominated sedimentary processes during the Amazonian Epoch. The absence of pre‐Amazonian high‐temperature metamorphic events recorded in ancient zircons indicates source domains of static southern highland crust punctuated by episodic impact modification.

Ice-rich (periglacial) vs icy (glacial) depressions in the Argyre region, Mars: a proposed cold-climate dichotomy of landforms

On Mars, so-called “scalloped depressions” are widely observed in Utopia Planitia (UP) and Malea Planum (MP). Typically, they are rimless, metres- to decametres-deep, incised sharply, tiered inwardly, polygonised and sometimes pitted. The depressions seemingly incise terrain that is icy and possibly thermokarstic, i.e. produced by the thermal destabilisation of the icy terrain. Agewise, the depressions are thought to be relatively youthful, originating in the Late Amazonian Epoch. Here, we report the presence of similar depressions in the Argyre region (AR) (30–60° S; 290–355° E). More importantly, we separate and differentiate these landforms into two groups: (ice-rich) periglacial depressions (Type-1); and, (icy) glacial depressions (Type-2a-c). This differentiation is presented to the Mars community for the first time. Based on a suite of morphological and geological characteristics synonymous with ice-complexes in the Lena Peninsula (eastern Russia) and the Tuktoyaktuk Coastlands (Northwest Territories, Canada), we propose that the Type-1 depressions are ice-rich periglacial basins that have undergone volatile depletion largely by sublimation and as the result of thermal destabilisation. In keeping with the terms and associated definitions derived of terrestrial periglacial-geomorphology, ice-rich refers to permanently frozen-ground in which ice lenses or segregation ice (collectively referenced as excess ice) have formed. We suggest that the depressions are the product of a multi-step, cold-climate geochronology: Atmospheric precipitation and surface accumulation of an icy mantle during recent high obliquities. Regional or local triple-point conditions and thaw/evaporation of the mantle, either by exogenic forcing, i.e. obliquity-driven rises of aerial and sub-aerial temperatures, or endogenic forcing, i.e. along Argyre impact-related basement structures. Meltwater migration into the regolith, at least to the full depth of the depressions. Freeze-thaw cycling and the formation of excess ice. Sublimation of the excess ice and depression formation as high obliquity dissipates and near-surface ice becomes unstable. The Type-2 depressions exhibit characteristics suggestive of (supra-glacial) dead-ice basins and snow/ice suncups observed in high-alpine landscapes on Earth, e.g. the Swiss Alps and the Himalayas. Like the Type-1 depressions, the Type-2 depressions could be the work of sublimation; however, the latter differ from the former in that they seem to develop within a glacial-like icy mantle that blankets the surface rather than within an ice-rich and periglacially-revised regolith at/near the surface. Interestingly, the Type-2 depressions overlie the Type-1 depressions at some locations. If the periglacial/glacial morphological and stratigraphical dichotomy of depressions is valid, then this points to recent glaciation at some locations within the AR being precursed by at least one episode of periglaciation. This also suggests that periglaciation has a deeper history in the region than has been thought hitherto. Moreover, if the hypothesised differences amongst the Argyre-based depressions are mirrored in Utopia Planitia and Malea Planum, then perhaps this periglacial-glacial dichotomy and its associated geochronology are as relevant to understanding late period landscape-evolution in these two regions as it is in the AR?

Sorted (clastic) polygons in the Argyre region, Mars, and possible evidence of pre- and post-glacial periglaciation in the Late Amazonian Epoch

The Argyre basin and associated rim-materials in the southern highlands of Mars are ancient, having been formed by the impact of a large body ∼3.9Gya. Despite its age, the regional landscape exhibits a wide range of geological/geomorphological modifications and/or features, e.g. fluvial, lacustrine, aeolian, glacial and periglacial. Collectively, this bears witness to the dynamic evolution of the Argyre region from the deep past through to, perhaps, the present day.Here, we present three principal findings that point to at least two distinct episodes of periglaciation, separated by a possible glacial-interval, during the very Late Amazonian Epoch in eastern Aonia Terra (AT), i.e. on the western flank of the Argyre basin. These findings are the product of our circum-Argyre study of all HiRISE images (∼35–65°S and ∼290–350°E).(1)(a) The first periglacial episode involves the development of small-sized (∼15–25m in diam.) and clastically-“sorted polygons” (SPs). The SPs are observed at eighteen locations within eastern AT. Hitherto, the presence of SPs in this region has been reported at one location alone. No other observations of SPs in the southern hemisphere of Mars have been documented. Morphologically similar landforms develop in cold-climate (permafrost) landscapes on Earth by means of periglacial processes, i.e. freeze–thaw cycling, segregated-ice formation, cryoturbation and frost heave.(b) We ascribe a periglacial origin to the SPs in eastern AT on the basis of this similarity of form and, no less importantly, on the close spatial-association of the SPs with blockfields (whose weathered “clastic” products are the building blocks of periglacial sorting on Earth), gelifluction-like lobes and possible “wet” gullies. Where similar assemblages occur in terrestrial permafrost-landscapes, the presence of liquid water and of boundary conditions tolerant of freeze–thaw cycling, are observed or inferred.(c) Fifteen of the eighteen SP locations are clustered longitudinally (44.4–57.5°S; 289.9–302.4°E). This is inconsistent with the latitudinal- and (obliquity-driven) dependency of freeze–thaw cycling in the Late Amazonian Epoch hypothesised by many workers in the discipline.(2) The second periglacial episode is highlighted by the development of small-sized and clastically non-sorted polygons (NSPs). These polygons could have formed by means of a “dry” cryotic process, i.e. thermal-contraction cracking.(3) The NSPs incise (and thus postdate) a light-toned mantle, thought by numerous workers to comprise an “ice-dust” admixture. At some of the locations where the putatively icy-mantle has undergone apparent ablation, underlying SPs are observed. This suggests that the SPs predate the mantle and, derivatively, the NSPs as well.The proposed geochronology of “wet-based SP – icy mantle – dry-based NSP” (periods and interval) is entirely new to the community. Moreover, it underlines the possibility that periglacial and glacial boundary-conditions, at least in our study area, may have oscillated much more substantially in the very Late Amazonian Epoch than many workers have thought possible.

Formation and mantling ages of lobate debris aprons on Mars: Insights from categorized crater counts

Lobate debris aprons in the Martian mid-latitudes offer important insights into the history of the Martian climate and the role of volatiles in Martian geologic activity. Here we present the results of counts of small impact craters, categorized by morphology, on debris aprons in the Deuteronilus Mensae region and the area east of Hellas basin. Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) ConTeXt Camera (CTX) images were used to document crater populations on the apron surfaces. Each crater was assessed and categorized according to its morphological characteristics (fresh, degraded, or filled). Fresh and most degraded craters likely superpose recent mantling deposits, whereas filled craters contain mantling deposits and thus indicate a minimum formation age for the apron (i.e., the age since stabilization of the debris apron surface following some modification but prior to mantling). Size-frequency distributions (SFDs) were compiled using established methodologies and plotted to assess their fit to the isochrons. The range or ranges in crater diameter over which each distribution paralleled the isochrons was determined by visual inspection, and general age constraints were noted from SFDs for all craters on a given surface and from each morphological class. The diameter range of each SFD segment observed to parallel an isochron was then input into the Craterstats2 analysis tool to calculate specific age estimates. The aprons were assessed both individually and as regional populations, which improved interpretation of the results and demonstrated the value and limitations of both approaches. The categorized counts reveal three groups of ages: (a) filled impact craters at larger diameters (>~500m) typically show the oldest ages, between ~300Ma and 1Ga, (b) smaller diameter filled and degraded craters reveal ages of resurfacing events between ~10Ma and 300Ma, and (c) fresh crater populations (<~100m diameter) indicate mantling deposits of less than ~10Ma in age. These results indicate that the lobate debris apron populations formed (or their surfaces became stable) in the Early to Middle Amazonian Epochs, and were subsequently subjected to complex degradation by erosion and sublimation and/or melting of contained ice, culminating in episodes of deposition of ice-rich mantles in the Late Amazonian Epoch.

Paleohydrology of Eberswalde crater, Mars

Eberswalde crater, Mars, contains a well-preserved fluvial distributary network in a likely deltaic setting. The meandering inverted paleochannels and closed drainage basin of this deposit support relatively well constrained estimates of channel-forming discharge (over an individual event flood timescale), runoff production (event and annual timescales), and longevity of deposition (geologic timescale) during the Late Hesperian to Early Amazonian Epochs. The width and meander dimensions of two inverted paleochannels reflect the channel-forming discharge from event floods (~200 to 400m3/s), the deposit surface indicates the level (−1400 to −1350m) and surface area (410 to 810km2) of the likely paleolake, and the topography and mapped extent of tributaries constrain the watershed area (5000 to 17,000km2). Based on these results and terrestrial empirical constraints on evaporation and sediment concentration, we evaluated three hypothetical water sources: meltwater liberated by the nearby Holden crater impact (continuous deposition over ~101–102years), intermittent rainfall or snowmelt during finite periods controlled by orbital evolution (deposition over ~104–106years), and highly infrequent runoff or melting of accumulated snowpacks following distant impacts or secular changes in orbital parameters. Local impact-generated runoff and highly infrequent rainfall or snowmelt require unreasonably high and low rates of evaporation, respectively, to maintain the paleolake level. The local impact hypothesis alternatively depends on one flooding episode with very high concentrations of fluvial sediment that are inconsistent with morphologic considerations. Multiple primary impact craters in the area postdate Holden ejecta but were later dissected, indicating fluvial erosion long after the Holden impact. Intermittent rainfall of ~1cm/day and seasonal snowmelt are both consistent with our results over a deposition timescale totaling ~104–106years.

Minimum effective area for high resolution crater counting of martian terrains

The acquisition of high-resolution imagery for the surface of Mars has enabled mapping of spatially limited (order of <103km2) landforms such as alluvial fans, deltas, and lacustrine deposits that are targets for exploration due to their association with liquid water. It is essential for our understanding of the planet’s geologic and climate history therefore to place these landforms within the global chronostratigraphic context. Here, we analyze both the statistical variability in the cratering pattern as well as the influence of small crater resurfacing on crater counting small landforms. We identified and counted craters (diameter (D)>200m) on four type terrains using Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) Context Camera (CTX) imagery that span the Noachian, Hesperian, and Amazonian epochs. The counts from each location include a region covering 10,000km2, ten 1000km2 subsets of that larger area, and approximately one hundred 100km2 samples. The data demonstrate significant variation in the crater size frequency and derived model ages across a single terrain type for the 100km2 samples. The crater size frequency at this area scale varies across a single, uniform geologic unit by up to a factor of 2–3 on the four different terrains. At 1000km2, the local pattern variations that are relevant at the 100km2 scale become less important and the age variations are tighter. In all four terrain cases, the 10,000km2 and 1000km2 samples capture distinct crater populations (km-sized craters) that formed before and after resurfacing event(s). However, due to the relatively high mean distance between km-sized craters, the 100km2 size area samples more commonly than not exclude a statistically significant sample at the kilometer size range, masking important information about the pre-resurfacing history of the terrain. We therefore suggest that due to the effect of pattern variability in cratering over 100km2 and the susceptibility of smaller craters to resurfacing, crater counts derived from small area samples are suspect to major uncertainties.

Possible ice-wedge polygons and recent landscape modification by “wet” periglacial processes in and around the Argyre impact basin, Mars

The Argyre basin and associated rim-materials in the southern hemisphere of Mars are ancient, having been formed by the impact of a large body ∼4Gya. This notwithstanding, the regional landscape continues to be altered by a multiplicity of geological and geomorphological processes.Three landforms, whose close spatial-association is identified in a new geological map of the Argyre region (∼290–360°E; ∼30–72°S), feature prominently in the list of very Late Amazonian Epoch alterations:(a)Small-sized (⩽∼20m in diameter) and unsorted polygons that exhibit metre to sub-metre elevated margins or shoulders, giving them a low-centred appearance; in “wet” permafrost environments on Earth low-centred polygons (LCPs) often are underlain by ice-wedges.(b)Gullies, seemingly formed by “wet” flow(s) and incised by the LCPs.(c)A putative (possibly ice-rich) latitude-dependent mantle (LDM) that underlies the LCPs and spatially-convergent “wet” gullies in all of our observations.These landforms occur from the middle to the high (near-polar) latitudes of the region and overlie geological units of all ages.Hitherto, the presence of the LCPs has been reported only fleetingly in the literature and only in as much as they have been observed on the walls of a few scalloped depressions in mid-Utopia Planitia. By contrast, we report the ubiquitous occurrence of the LCPs in and around the Argyre impact-basin on gully-margins and adjacent slopes as well as on relatively-flat inter-crater terrain.On the basis of three separate but related lines of reasoning we hypothesise that ice wedges could be present beneath LCP margins in our study region. If we are correct then these LCP sites are geomorphological expressions of boundary conditions that were relatively warm and wet in the recent past.First, substantial ice-wedging in permafrost environments on Earth requires the availability of meltwater. If, as some researchers propose, the formation of some “wet” gullies at the martian mid-latitudes is induced by the localised (slope-side and crater-wall) thaw of the underlying LDM at the gully sites themselves, then meltwater also should be available for ice-wedging and the formation of LCPs at these sites. Interestingly, LCPs are observed on gully-channel walls as expected if meltwater is associated with gully formation; however, in some instances the LCPs are also observed on the slope-side terrain that extends for hundreds of metres beyond the channel walls and even above the gully alcoves. This suggests that the distribution of icy terrain affected by thaw could be much more substantial than has been suggested hitherto.Second, LCPs that are identical in shape and scale to the slope-side LCPs are observed on relatively flat inter-crater terrain (also underlain by the LDM) that is distal from the “wet” gullies. By contrast, here, their distribution extends for kilometres. This too could be indicative of meltwater being more extensive in the regional landscape than most workers have thought possible.Third, on Earth the “dryness” or the “wetness” of a permafrost environment determines whether LCP margins are underlain by sand or by ice. When the observed LCPs and major deposits of sand in the study region are plotted on our new map of the Argyre impact-basin, we see that these deposits are rarely proximal. On the other hand, the LDM underlies the LCPs in all instances and, if modified by thaw, seems to be a likelier source of margin fill for the LCPs than sand.

Evidence for Amazonian mid-latitude glaciation on Mars from impact crater asymmetry

We find that crater slopes in the mid-latitudes of Mars have a marked north–south asymmetry, with the pole-facing slopes being shallower. We mapped impact craters in two southern hemisphere sites (Terra Cimmeria and Noachis Terra) and one northern hemisphere site (Acidalia Planitia) and used elevation data from the High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) onboard Mars Express to find the maximum slope of impact crater walls in the four cardinal directions. Kreslavsky and Head (Kreslavsky, M.A., Head, J.W. [2003]. Geophys. Res. Lett. 30), using Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) track data, also found that, in general, conjugate slopes are shallower in the pole-facing direction, but over a narrower (∼10°) and more constrained latitude band. They linked the asymmetry to active-layer formation (thaw) at high obliquity. However, Parsons and Nimmo (Parsons, R.A., Nimmo, F. [2009]. J. Geophys. Res. 114) studied crater asymmetry using MOLA gridded data and found no evidence of a relationship between crater asymmetry and latitude. Our work supports the observations of Kreslavsky and Head (Kreslavsky, M.A., Head, J.W. [2003]. Geophys. Res. Lett. 30), and shows that asymmetry is also found on conjugate crater slopes below the resolution of MOLA, over a wider latitude band than found in their work. We do not systematically find a sudden transition to asymmetric craters with latitude as expected for thaw-related processes, such as solifluction, gelifluction, or gully formation. The formation of gullies should produce the opposite sense of asymmetry to our observations, so cannot explain them despite the mid-latitude location and pole-facing preferences of gullies. We instead link this asymmetry to the deposition of ice-rich crater deposits, where the base of pole-facing slopes receive ten to hundreds of meters of additional net deposition, compared to equator-facing ones over the mid-latitudes. In support of this hypothesis we found that craters in Terra Cimmeria that have deposits on both their floor and pole-facing walls, occur preferentially at the mid-latitudes and have marked positive asymmetry. These deposits were likely laid down during high obliquity excursions (>45°) at least 5My ago and potentially over the whole Amazonian epoch. Their preservation to the present-day relies on the presence of a surface lag of debris, which inhibits sublimation.