Amazon Countries Research Articles

Severe droughts reduce river navigability and isolate communities in the Brazilian Amazon

The Amazon basin is experiencing severe droughts that are expected to worsen with climate change. Riverine communities are especially vulnerable to these extreme events. This study investigates the experiences of Brazilian Amazonian communities during droughts occurring from 2000-2020. We assess the distribution of settlements at risk of prolonged isolation during extreme low-water periods, along with impacts reported in digital news outlets. Using historic time series of river levels from 90 gauges, we look at how long droughts lasted in regions with reported impacts. Results indicate that the droughts in 2005, 2010, and 2016 were the most severe, with over an additional month of low water levels in those years. Such drought events routinely disrupt inland water transport and isolate local populations, limiting access to essential goods (food, fuel, medicine) and basic services (healthcare, education). Given this new reality, Amazon countries must develop long-term strategies for mitigation, adaptation, and disaster response.

How Governance Can Contribute to Amazon Biome Conservation?

Forest conservation has transcended environmental concerns and become a determining factor in global social and economic issues. Therefore, setting forest conservation goals, including recovery and/or reforestation, is critical to help mitigate global warming and climate change. Although Amazonian countries have forestry policies for forest conservation, the forest continues to be degraded. The aim of this article is to suggest a regional governance model for the nine countries that share the Amazon rainforest. The thesis of the paper is that the definition of a common legal basis for the nine countries can contribute to forest conservation. Through qualitative analysis of exploratory and descriptive variables, the main topics related to the proposal of a governance model were identified. Multi-level governance contributes to the environmental conservation process by creating an environment to engage local, national, and international stakeholders from diverse groups. As a result of this paper, we suggest the creation of a supranational governance, composed and regulated by each of the nine countries of the Amazon biome and having as reference the AFR100 initiative. The proposition and creation of governance among Amazonian countries are fundamental for achieving the objectives for the conservation of the biome; such governance must take into account existing public policies, institutional mechanisms, and financial commitments. Although the Amazon countries present a framework of policies and commitments that seek to preserve the biome, the reality is that forest degradation through deforestation with negative effects on the climate and on the communities that depend on the standing forest still exists.

A relevância da Cúpula de Belém do Pará para implementação do Tratado de Cooperação Amazônica

The IV Belém Summit in Pará, Brazil, held in August 2023, brought together the leaders of the member countries of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization (OTCA) to discuss a new sustainable agenda for the region. The Amazon was the focus of attention due to its global importance as the largest watershed and the most extensive and diverse tropical forest on the planet. The Summit highlighted the importance of strengthening OTCA as the only intergovernmental coordination mechanism to implement the agreed presidential agenda. The Belém Declaration established priorities for effective regional cooperation, including sustainability, environmental preservation, and inclusive development. The challenges to be faced include the efficient management of OTCA, the improvement of governance and positioning as a center for regional and international technical and political cooperation. The successful implementation of the agreed agenda will require the commitment of the Amazon countries and the active participation of all stakeholders, especially indigenous peoples and local communities.

MADERA: A standardized Pan-Amazonian dataset for tropical timber species.

We compiled and presented a dataset for all timber species reported in the Amazon region from all nine South American Amazonian countries. This was based on official information from every country, as well as from two substantial scientific references. We verified the standard taxonomic names from each individual source, using the Taxonomic Name Resolution Service (TNRS) and considered all Amazonian tree species with diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥10 cm. We also obtained estimates of the current population size for most species from a published approach based on data from 1900 tree inventory plots (1-ha each) distributed across the Amazon region and part from the Amazon Tree Diversity Network (ATDN). We then identified the hyperdominant timber species. In addition, we overlapped our timber species list with data for species that are used for commercial purposes, according to the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO), the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) taxa assessment and Red List categories. Finally, we also included IUCN Red List categories based on combined deforestation, and climate change scenarios for these species. Our final Amazonian timber species dataset contains 1112 unique species records, which belong to 337 genera and 72 families from the lowland Amazonian rainforest, with associated information related to population, conservation, and trade status of each species. The authors of this research expect that the information provided will be useful to strengthen the public forestry policies of the Amazon countries, inform ecological studies, as well for forest management purposes. The data are released under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

Foreign direct investment and carbon emissions from land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF): empirical evidence from tropical forest countries

Since 1990, global forest area has been reducing; tropical forests have suffered from different anthropogenic and natural factors that account for forest loss. Tropical deforestation is the second driver of anthropogenic emissions; increasing demand and investments in tropical forests drive these emissions. These forests attract significant foreign direct investments, but the effects of these investments on carbon emissions from land use, land-use change, and forestry are not well enshrined in the literature for the countries under study. This paper seeks to analyse the impact of foreign direct investments on carbon emissions from land use, land-use change, and forestry amongst 30 tropical forest countries from 1996 to 2019. The sampled countries were disaggregated by tropical blocs: Amazon, Congo basin, Australasia, and Southeast Asia, and by income levels; low-income, lower-middle, upper-middle, and high-income. The findings reveal a U-shape structure of the impact of FDI on carbon emissions from LULUCF within Congo basin and Amazon countries; at higher levels of FDI, emissions from LULUCF will increase while Australasia and Southeast Asian countries show an inverted U-shape impact, thus at higher levels of FDI, there will be a negative and significant impact on carbon emissions from LULUCF. The income levels reveal an inverted U-shape for low-income and high-income countries and a U-shape for upper-middle-income countries; the impact for lower-middle-income countries is not significant. Overall, for the whole sample, the impact depicts a U-shape. This paper proposes high-level development of environmental conditions for FDI for different sectors that align with country and regional green growth plans. Enhancing national and regional governance systems to enforce decisions and fight corruption effectively can significantly promote green FDI for green growth.

Declining Amazon biomass due to deforestation and subsequent degradation losses exceeding gains.

In the Amazon, deforestation and climate change lead to increased vulnerability to forest degradation, threatening its existing carbon stocks and its capacity as a carbon sink. We use satellite L-Band Vegetation Optical Depth (L-VOD) data that provide an integrated (top-down) estimate of biomass carbon to track changes over 2011-2019. Because the spatial resolution of L-VOD is coarse (0.25°), it allows limited attribution of the observed changes. We therefore combined high-resolution annual maps of forest cover and disturbances with biomass maps to model carbon losses (bottom-up) from deforestation and degradation, and gains from regrowing secondary forests. We show an increase of deforestation and associated degradation losses since 2012 which greatly outweigh secondary forest gains. Degradation accounted for 40% of gross losses. After an increase in 2011, old-growth forests show a net loss of above-ground carbon between 2012 and 2019. The sum of component carbon fluxes in our model is consistent with the total biomass change from L-VOD of 1.3 Pg C over 2012-2019. Across nine Amazon countries, we found that while Brazil contains the majority of biomass stocks (64%), its losses from disturbances were disproportionately high (79% of gross losses). Our multi-source analysis provides a pessimistic assessment of the Amazon carbon balance and highlights the urgent need to stop the recent rise of deforestation and degradation, particularly in the Brazilian Amazon.

Direct Management of COVID-19 at National and Subnational Level: The Case of the Western Amazon Countries

This paper analyses direct management of COVID-19 in Brazil, Colombia and Peru, the three largest countries in the Western Amazon region. Using information gathered from different sources and analysing them through comparative case studies and content analysis, this study reveals the scale of disruption endured by Indigenous communities living in the region caused by COVID-19. While findings identify several shortcomings and failures in policies adopted by national and local governments in dealing with the pandemic, they also highlight how some Latin American countries used the crisis to introduce reforms to deepen neoliberal New Public Management (NPM) policies and practices.

Antihyperlipidemic and Antioxidant Capacities, Nutritional Analysis and UHPLC-PDA-MS Characterization of Cocona Fruits (Solanum sessiliflorum Dunal) from the Peruvian Amazon.

Cocona fruits are a popular food and medicinal fruit used mainly in the Amazon and several countries of South America for the preparation of several food products such as drinks, jams and milk shakes. In this study five ecotypes of cocona native to Peru have been studied regarding their nutritional and antioxidants values plus antihyperlipidemic activities. Seventy bioactive compounds have been detected in Peruvian cocona ecotypes including several phenolic acids, aminoacids and flavonoids; of those six were spermidines, (peaks 1, 2, 25, 26, 38 and 39), thirteen were aminoacids, (peaks 3–9, 11–13, 16, 17, 22–24), eighteen flavonoids (peaks 28, 30–32 45,46, 48–53 56, 57, 61 and 64–66), twelve were phenolics (peaks 19, 21, 27, 29, 34, 35, 36, 42, 43, 44, 54, and 59), two carotenoids, (peak 62 and 63), eight were lipid derivatives (peaks 37, 55, 58, 60 and 67–70), one sugar (peak 47), four terpenes (peaks 33, 40, 41 and 47), two amides, (peaks 10 and 18), one aldehyde, (peak 15), and three saturated organic acids, (peaks 4, 5 and 20). Hypercholesterolemic rats administered with pulp of the ecotypes CTR and SRN9 showed the lowest cholesterol and triglyceride levels after treatment (126.74 ± 6.63; 102.11 ± 9.47; 58.16 ± 6.64; 61.05 ± 4.00 mg/dL, for cholesterol, triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein and low-density lipoprotein respectively, for the group treated with SRN9 pulp, and 130.09 ± 8.55; 108.51 ± 10.04; 57.30 ± 5.72; and 65.41 ± 7.68 mg/dL, for cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL and LDL lipoproteins respectively for the group treated with CTR pulp). The ecotypes proved to be good sources of natural antioxidants and their consumption represent an alternative for the prevention of atherosclerosis.

Editorial: The legal protection of the Amazon rainforest

This Special Issue aims to critically evaluate the current legal and institutional frameworks for environmental protection in the Amazon, against the backdrop of increasing deforestation rates, forest fires, and unfavourable political contexts in some of the Amazon countries. In this vein, the contributions to this Special Issue discuss legal pathways that may contribute to the protection of the Amazon. These include (national, regional and international) laws and policies; domestic and international litigation; and market-based mechanisms and private sector initiatives aimed at reducing deforestation and forest degradation. The Special Issue also highlights the challenges related to regional cooperation and forest governance more broadly.

COVID‐19 and Amazonia: Rights‐based approaches for the pandemic response

COVID‐19 has shed light on humanity’s interconnectedness with nature. The protection of biodiversity is essential to prevent future pandemics and protect human health. With rising deforestation levels, the Amazon basin is a centre stage in this debate. Lacking a regional strategy to protect the rainforest, Amazon countries are failing to protect their rich biodiversity. The transboundary effects of Amazonia’s destruction are often overlooked. Simultaneously, the COVID‐19 pandemic shows how cooperation between states is more critical than ever. This article examines how Amazon countries have jointly addressed the pandemic, demonstrating the effectiveness of regional agreements and their role in pandemic prevention. The right to a healthy environment is central to this investigation, given the role of forests and biodiversity in preventing zoonotic diseases. This article thus asks: What are the duties of States to protect the environment and indigenous communities during COVID‐19 and potentially future pandemics? In this context, it considers the developing jurisprudence of the Inter‐American System of Human Rights and its potential effects on regional and national implementation of environmental obligations.

Building a regional adaptation strategy for Amazon countries

The IPCC has predicted that the Amazon rainforest will suffer strong consequences from a changing climate in the near future. The Amazon countries still have limited national policies on how to adapt and have failed to cooperate to promote adaptation plans at the regional level. Most studies have focused on adaptation policies at a local or national level, but overlook how these interact with the necessary regional cooperation required in transboundary ecosystems. This article assesses regional and national plans for climate adaptation in Amazonia, asking whether these provide a basis for regional adaptation policies. Have countries addressed climate adaptation in their NDCs and are there any synergies between countries? Are the Amazon countries currently implementing adaptation policies through the regional framework Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization, and if so how? The analysis is then contrasted with the regional adaptation policies promoted in Central America, a region that faces similar challenges. The analysis finds that regional adaptation governance in the Amazon region is still incipient, and requires a holistic view that integrates a multi-stakeholder approach to climate adaptation. This article makes a vital contribution to the impact and contribution of Amazonia to climate governance, which is still poorly understood.

Cost-effective protection of biodiversity in the western Amazon

The western Amazon needs to expand its protected-area system to ensure the conservation of its immense and threatened biodiversity. However, potential expansions often meet with resistance because of scarce government resources and competing social priorities. Here, we proposed an expansion of the protected-area system for the western Amazon that increases biodiversity conservation at minimum costs. We started by evaluating biological data to establish conservation targets for enhancing protection of 2419 species of plants and vertebrates. We then built a map that shows the variation in costs of effectively managing lands as protected areas. We also adapted an opportunity cost layer for agriculture and livestock to approximate realistic foregone incomes when a particular extent of land is protected. These cost estimates were used in a decision-support tool to find the most inexpensive places to achieve the conservation targets. We found that this cost-optimized expansion would reduce annual costs by 22% in comparison to an expansion planned without cost data. Moreover, without collaboration with indigenous peoples and without cooperation among the western Amazon countries costs would be 39% and 49% higher, respectively. The cost of the proposed expansion, estimated at US$ 100 million annually, is only a fraction of the regional Gross Domestic Product (0.018%). Thus, this study may help governments and conservation agencies to improve financial planning of the region's reserve network by maximizing species protection at more affordable costs.

Changes in Climate and Land Use Over the Amazon Region: Current and Future Variability and Trends

This paper shows recent progress in our understanding of climate variability and trends in the Amazon region, and how these interact with land use change. The review includes an overview of up-to-date information on climate and hydrological variability, and on warming trends in Amazonia, which reached 0.6-0.7 °C over the last 40 years, with 2016 as the warmest year since at least 1950 (0.9 °C +0.3°C). We focus on local and remote drivers of climate variability and change. We review the impacts of these drivers on the length of dry season, the role of the forest in climate and carbon cycles, the resilience of the forest, the risk of fires and biomass burning, and the potential “die back” of the Amazon forests if surpassing a “tipping point”. The role of the Amazon in moisture recycling and transport is also investigated, and a review of model development for climate change projections in the region is included. In sum, future sustainability of the Amazonian forests and its many services requires management strategies that consider the likelihood of multi-year droughts superimposed on a continued warming trend. Science has assembled enough knowledge to underline the global and regional importance of an intact Amazon region that can support policymaking and to keep this sensitive ecosystem functioning. This major challenge requires substantial resources and strategic cross-national planning, and a unique blend of expertise and capacities established in Amazon countries and from international collaboration. This also highlights the role of deforestation control in in support of policy for mitigation options as established in the Paris Agreement of 2015.

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OBJECTIVES/SPECIFIC AIMS: To share lessons learned from implementing a health survey to a global sample of mTWs. METHODS/STUDY POPULATION: mTWs were paid $0.50 for taking a 15 minute survey to ascertain attitudes and intentions toward participating in genetic research. Two phases included: pilot survey targeting 7 global regions and a large-scale implementation in English in United States, India, and other countries and in Spanish in Spanish speaking countries. Administrative and descriptive information were collected and analyzed by region/country including: completions by location, demographics, time to complete, and survey satisfaction. RESULTS/ANTICIPATED RESULTS: There are 4 key lessons: (1) MTurk is fast. The US sample (n=505) accrual took <2 days and the Indian sample (n=505) took 11 days, while the response from other countries (n=118) generally exceeded 30 days. (2) Using Amazon country specification was the best way to ensure responses from specific countries and regions. (3) Demographic differences exist in mTWs between countries. For example, US mTWs were significantly more likely female (60.1%) compared with India (30.2%) and other countries (34.2%). (4) mTWs found the survey understandable/acceptable. mTWs reported high understandability and acceptability of the survey, which did not vary significantly across countries or by language. DISCUSSION/SIGNIFICANCE OF IMPACT: mTurk provides an efficient platform for survey research from diverse US and Indian samples. In other countries and in Spanish, the mTurk mechanism yielded a smaller sample more slowly but was still effective.

The role of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty for shared water management

This study aims to highlight the important role of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty – ACT for the management of the Amazon shared river basin. There are challenges in the organizational and operational structure that need to be address. This article also focus on the major historical milestones during the 35 years of the treaty, which represent a breakthrough for shared water management in the region. In the last part, the rules and principles of internal and international law applicable to the ACT countries are analyzed. It concludes that, on one hand, it is important updating the internal laws of water management in the Amazon countries, and on the other, it is also important the adaptation to general principals of international law, and more specifically, to integrated and participatory principles in the field of shared river basins management is also essential to guide the economic, social and environmental development of the Amazon region.

Levantamento das espécies de Amasonia (Lamiaceae) para o Brasil

O presente trabalho consiste no levantamento das espécies de Amasonia L.f. para o Brasil, com base em observações de campo e estudo de espécimes de herbários, além de fotografias de tipos e de documentação bibliográfica. Amasonia é um gênero neotropical, com distribuição na América do Sul e Antilhas. Oito espécies são reconhecidas para o gênero (A. angustifolia, A. arborea, A. calycina, A. campestris, A. hirta, A. lasiocaulos, A. obovata e A. spruceana) ocorrendo principalmente nas regiões amazônica e centro-oeste do país. Chave para a identificação, ilustrações e dados de floração e frutificação são fornecidos.

Caracterización de la actividad piscícola en las meso regiones del estado del amazonas, amazonía brasileña

La piscicultura ocupa una posición destacada en el Brasil. En la Amazonía falta información técnica actualizada que subsidie el progreso de inversiones en este sector. El objetivo de este trabajo fue caracterizar la actividad piscícola en el Amazonas por medio de agrupamiento de municipios (meso regiones), mediante la utilización de información técnica proveniente de instituciones gubernamentales del Amazonas. Fueron consideradas informaciones públicas solicitadas a la Secretaria de Produção Rural do Estado do Amazonas (SEPROR-AM) y al Instituto de Proteção Ambiental do Amazonas (IPAAM), que fueron reorganizadas en planillas y luego se analizaron. De acuerdo con el material recopilado, en las meso regiones no existe un patrón común entre las estructuras utilizadas. Sobre las especies cultivadas se observó que el tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) ocupa una posición secundaria, con excepción de la región sudeste. La adquisición de alevinos es realizada por medio de donaciones recibidas del Instituto de Desenvolvimento Agropecuário e Florestal Sustentável do Estado do Amazonas (IDAM/SEPROR- AM) o directamente de la naturaleza. Las asociaciones de piscicultores o acuicultores están presentes en todos los municipios; sin embargo, cuanto mayor es la proximidad a la capital, mejor están organizadas. Entre los principales problemas mencionados por los piscicultores están la obtención de la ración, la adquisición de alevinos y la falta o restricción de información y de técnicos especializados. Sugerimos que el diagnóstico de la actividad piscícola en las meso regiones del Estado de Amazonas, aquí presentado, puede subsidiar acciones locales y en otras regiones de la panAmazonia (región integrada por los territorios amazónicos de todos los países amazónicos).

The Drought of Amazonia in 2005

Abstract In 2005, large sections of southwestern Amazonia experienced one of the most intense droughts of the last hundred years. The drought severely affected human population along the main channel of the Amazon River and its western and southwestern tributaries, the Solimões (also known as the Amazon River in the other Amazon countries) and the Madeira Rivers, respectively. The river levels fell to historic low levels and navigation along these rivers had to be suspended. The drought did not affect central or eastern Amazonia, a pattern different from the El Niño–related droughts in 1926, 1983, and 1998. The choice of rainfall data used influenced the detection of the drought. While most datasets (station or gridded data) showed negative departures from mean rainfall, one dataset exhibited above-normal rainfall in western Amazonia. The causes of the drought were not related to El Niño but to (i) the anomalously warm tropical North Atlantic, (ii) the reduced intensity in northeast trade wind moisture transport into southern Amazonia during the peak summertime season, and (iii) the weakened upward motion over this section of Amazonia, resulting in reduced convective development and rainfall. The drought conditions were intensified during the dry season into September 2005 when humidity was lower than normal and air temperatures were 3°–5°C warmer than normal. Because of the extended dry season in the region, forest fires affected part of southwestern Amazonia. Rains returned in October 2005 and generated flooding after February 2006.

Group discussion: epidemiological and social determinants of Chagas disease and its control in the Amazon countries

The emergence of Chagas disease transmission in theAmazon region is a new challenge for controlling thedisease. It takes on special importance, considering that:(i) vector transmission in homes in many other areas hasnow been brought under control, or at least that the tech-nology available for control presents proven efficiency;(ii) the transmission patterns are different; (iii) some ofits epidemiological and social determinants or risk con-ditions are unknown.The enzootic transmission cycle of Trypanosomacruzi has long been known in the Amazon region. CarlosChagas himself already recognized flagellates isolated frommonkeys of the species Saimiri scirius as T. cruzi, in theyear 1924 (Chagas 1924). Following this, many other ani-mal reservoirs were identified (Deane 1961, 1964). Thetriatomine fauna is also very diversified and natural infec-tion has been observed in several of the species present(Barret 1988, Coura et al. 1994, Schofield 2002).However, the domestic transmission cycle has notbecome established in an evident manner or on a largescale. With the progressive human occupation of the re-gion, introduction of non-autochthonous species or colo-nization by native species as a result of human predatoryaction on the natural environment were considered likely(Silveira et al. 1984, Barret 1988, Silveira 1997). So far, ithas not been possible to confirm this. Nonetheless, au-tochthonous cases started to be recognized in the Ama-zon region, including in countries without a history ofoccurrences of this disease (Shaw 1969, Rambajan 1984,Beauder 1985). Moreover, increasing numbers of suchcases have been found over recent years (Valente 2005).On the one hand, this may be ascribed to possible newevents or environmental changes. On the other hand, thisis certainly due to the greater attention that has been givento studying the disease and performing disease surveil-lance in this region, even if done non-systematically.The means of transmission in the Amazon region donot correspond to those that are recognized as charac-teristic of the endemic disease, with “installation andpermanence” of the vector in the home. The known au-tochthonous cases are produced by the following meansof transmission: (i) oral transmission, which indirectlyor passively may be understood as vectorial, providedthat it only occurs by means of contamination of foodsby the feces of infected triatomines; (ii) vectorial trans-mission in the home, without colonization, by meansof periodic or regular incursions by specimens that in-vade the home; (iii) vectorial transmission outside ofthe home, by means of frequent human entry into for-ests and contact with wild triatomines, as occurs withRhodnius brethesi in the case of extraction activitiesrelating to the piacaba palm tree.The peculiarities of Chagas disease in the Amazonregion require the adoption of a surveillance model dif-fering from what has been followed in historically en-demic areas, in which it is fundamentally centered onentomological surveillance.Likewise, in conceptualizing a surveillance and con-trol model for the disease in this region, the followingmust be considered: (i) the extent of the Amazon terri-tory and the operational difficulties implied; (ii) the factthat it is not recognized as a public health problem inthat region; (iii) the resources already installed in the re-gion that mat serve for preventing endemic Chagas disease.

Integrating Ecosystem Management, Protected Areas, and Mammal Conservation in the Brazilian Amazon

The Amazon forest has been converted to a matrix of pristine and modified habitats. Landscape-scale biodiversity conservation requires an understanding of species' distributions over this matrix to guarantee both effective protection and use for present and future generations. In this study, we evaluated how much of the existing and future planned protected areas (PAs) would be contributing to the conservation of Brazilian Amazon mammals (N = 399), including threatened species (N = 51). Currently, almost 37% of Brazilian Amazon is protected and that may increase to 46% if planned PAs are implemented. In the current PA system, 22% are indigenous land and 11% are sustainable use units, e.g., production forests. Only one-fifth of the whole range of mammal species occurring in Brazilian Amazon is actually protected by Brazilian PAs. However, considering only the part of the ranges within the Brazilian Amazon, and therefore under the scope of Brazilian actions, Brazilian PAs assume an important role in the protection of 39% of mammal distribution ranges, particularly the threatened species (39%). These results suggest that an integrated network of protected areas among Amazon countries would be necessary to increase their efficiency in mammal conservation. The need for strengthening of the forest sector and good management practices in Brazil appears critical for the maintenance of large extents of forest and species conservation. Under such a scenario, the contribution of developed nations and international agencies must assume an important role for the maintenance and enlargement of the protected area network in Amazon region.