Amanita Virosa Research Articles

Detection and quantification of Amatoxin in wild mushrooms from North-East India using HPLC-PDA method for food safety purposes

Misidentification and ingestion of poisonous mushrooms pose significant threats to food safety, particularly in Mizoram, India, where over ten fatalities due to mushroom poisoning have been reported in the past decade (2013-2023). This study aimed to address this critical issue by identifying and quantifying the cause of death due to consumption of wild mushroom from Champhai district, Mizoram, India and to test the reliability of HPLC-PDA for detection and quantification of amatoxins. HPLC-PDA confirmed the presence of α-amanitin in Amanita virosa and Amanita bisporigera in the samples. α-amanitin is a water-soluble, heat-stable, and highly toxic cyclic octapeptide present in the genus Amanita, which includes Amanita phalloides, Amanita verna, and Amanita virosa. Amanitin cytotoxicity arises from the inhibition of RNA polymerases, namely RNA polymerase II, which obstructs mRNA production in kidney and liver cells. Validation of the method demonstrated good precision and accuracy, with LOD and LOQ values of 88 ng g-1 and 210 ng g-1, respectively. The method was successfully applied to quantify α-amanitin in ten wild mushroom samples, revealing its presence only in Amanita virosa (1.17 mg g-1) and Amanita bisporigera (1.91 mg g-1) species. These findings underscore the importance of accurate α-amanitin detection methods in ensuring food safety and public health, particularly in regions prone to mushroom poisoning incidents. It is noteworthy that this study marks the initial exploration for detection and quantification of α-amanitin from poisonous mushrooms found in the wild regions of Champhai district in Mizoram, representing the first report of such in the area.

A retrospective evaluation of mushroom ingestions in 421 dogs in Norway (2011-2022).

Mushroom poisoning may result in a variety of signs ranging from mild, mostly gastroenteritis, to organ failure and death. To increase the knowledge of prevalence, treatment and outcome in dogs, information regarding mushroom ingestion was collected. This retrospective study analysed all inquiries of mushroom ingestion in dogs to the Norwegian Poison Information Center from 2011 to 2022. Mushrooms were identified by a mycologist or Norwegian-certified mushroom expert. Differences in mushroom species, clinical findings, treatments and outcome were evaluated. A total of 421 mushroom ingestions in dogs were included. The mushrooms were identified as non-poisonous in 45% of cases. The most frequently involved toxin group was gastrointestinal mushrooms, followed by muscarinic mushrooms and mushrooms containing isoxazoles. About 64% of cases were managed at home, 33% were hospitalised and received treatment, and 3% were observed by a veterinarian without treatment. The survival rate was 98.6%, with death occurring after ingestion of Amanita muscaria, Cortinarius rubellus, Amanita virosa, Clitocybe rivulosa and Inocybe sp. This study demonstrated the importance of rapid and accurate identification of the mushroom. This could prevent delays in therapeutic intervention and avoid unnecessary treatment of these dogs. With early, correct identification of mushrooms, our results demonstrated a good prognosis for dogs after ingestion.

Demographic, clinical, and laboratory findings of mushroom-poisoned patients in Kermanshah province, west of Iran.

BackgroundMushroom poisoning can cause gastrointestinal, renal, and hepatic symptoms and even death. This descriptive study examined the demographic, clinical, and laboratory findings of patients with fungal poisoning, a type of fungus causing the poisoning, and the incidence and mortality rates of fungal poisoning in Kermanshah province, western Iran, from 2014 to 2018.MethodsThe medical records of 193 patients with mushroom poisoning from 2014 to 2018 were evaluated. The liver and kidney function tests, electrolytes, abdominal and pelvic ultrasound, chest x-ray, coagulation tests, and coagulation factors (fibrinogen, prothrombin) were assessed. Data were collected from the medical records of patients admitted to the Poisoning Center of Imam Khomeini Hospital in Kermanshah, Iran using a researcher-made checklist. Data were analyzed by SPSS (version 16) using descriptive statistics, including mean, standard deviation, and frequency distribution tables. Trend analysis for proportion was done by chi-square statistics in STATA-14 software (ptrend command).ResultsOf cases, ‌51.3% were male, 92.6% were city dwellers, 38.3% were aged 21–40 years, and 92.5% were poisoned during the spring. The fungus that caused poisoning was Amanita virosa. The gastrointestinal, nervous, and visual systems were the most common systems involved. The most common gastrointestinal symptoms included nausea and vomiting (72.0%) and abdominal pain (71.0%). Vertigo (11.9%) and headache (9.3%) were the most common neurological symptoms. The most common visual manifestation was blurred vision (7.8%). Of cases, 23.7% had metabolic acidosis. The increased alkaline phosphatase level was the most common liver disorder in 98.7% of the cases. Increased blood urea nitrogen and creatinine levels were also reported in 21.0% and 17.7% of the cases, respectively. The serum lactic dehydrogenase and creatine phosphokinase levels also increased in 99.3% and 30.2% of the patients, respectively. The mortality rate was 1.6% (n = 3).ConclusionThe fungal poisoning diagnosis should always be considered in young patients referred to the emergency department with gastrointestinal complaints, a history of consuming wild self-picked mushrooms, and high liver and kidney test values. Since most fungal poisonings occur in the spring, it is necessary to inform the community of the dangers of consuming self-picked wild mushrooms, especially in this season.

CDFT-Based Reactivity Descriptors as a Useful MEDT Chemoinformatics Tool for the Study of the Virotoxin Family of Fungal Peptides.

Virotoxins are monocyclic peptides formed by at least five different compounds: alaviroidin, viroisin, deoxoviroisin, viroidin and deoxovirodin. These are toxic peptides singularly found in Amanita virosa mushrooms. Here we perform computational studies on the structural and electronic conformations of these peptides using the MN12SX/Def2TZVP/H2O chemistry model to investigate their chemical reactivity. CDFT-based descriptors (for Conceptual Density Functional Theory) (e.g., Parr functions and Nucleophilicity) are also considered. At the same time, other properties (e.g., pKas) will be determined and used to study virotoxins solubility and to inform decisions about repurposing these agents in medicinal chemistry.

JENIS-JENIS DAN POTENSI JAMUR MAKROSKOPIS YANG TERDAPAT DI PT PERKEBUNAN HASIL MUSI LESTARI DAN PT DJUANDA SAWIT KABUPATEN MUSI RAWAS

This study aimed to determine the types and potential of macroscopic fungi in oil palm plantations at PT Musi Lestari Plantation and PT Djuanda Sawit Plantation in Musi Rawas Regency. This research is descriptive qualitative research. Sampling is done by using a purposive sampling method with roaming techniques. The macroscopic fungal species found in the field were made into wet herbarium and identified. The research data were analyzed descriptively. The results of the study obtained 35 species. 35 species of macroscopic fungi including Clitoybe dealbata, Clitoybe decembris, Collybia sp., Collybia chirata, Collybia confluens, Collybia butyracea, Marasminus sp., Boletus sp., Hipholoma marginatum, Pleurotus varreatus, Pleurotus ostreatus, Crepurususus spidus, Crepurususus sp. rameus, Lactarius sp., Volvariella volvaceae, rhacodes Lepiota, Amanita fulva, Amanita virosa, Parasola lactea, Auricularia polytricha, Spongipelis sp., Grivola sp., Grivola sp., Grivola sp., Fvom phomentarius, Ganoderma sp. , Panus sp., Coltricia sp., Coltricia perennes, Pycnoporus cinnabarinus, Tulostoma sp., Lycoperdon gemmatum, Peziza repanda, and Peziza vesiculosa. The conclusions of 35 species were found, belonging to 6 orders, 16 families, and 24 genera. 8 species or 23% macroscopic fungi can be consumed.

Determination of cyclopeptide toxins in Amanita subpallidorosea and Amanita virosa by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry

Amanita subpallidorosea is a recently discovered lethal Amanita sect. Phalloideae species found in China that is clustered with A. virosa in the same clade based on molecular phylogenetic analysis. However, the cyclopeptide toxin contents of these lethal mushrooms remain poorly studied. In this study, the cyclopeptide toxins in A. subpallidorosea were reported for the first time and the cyclopeptide compositions of A. subpallidorosea and A. virosa species were systematically analyzed. Thirteen cyclopeptides and two unknown compounds were identified or observed from these two lethal mushrooms by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry. Of the known cyclopeptides, the virotoxins alaviroidin, viroisin, and viroidin, which were previously thought to be restricted to A. virosa, were identified in A. subpallidorosea. The cyclopeptide compositions showed that there are diversities in the kinds and levels of amatoxins, phallotoxins, and virotoxins between A. subpallidorosea and A. virosa species, and that the amount of total toxins in the tested A. subpallidorosea is significantly higher than that in the tested A. virosa. Furthermore, consistency of the cyclopeptide toxins with the molecular phylogenetic relationships was demonstrated.

Re-evaluation of specimens recorded as Amanita virosa in Korea

Re-evaluation of specimens recorded as Amanita virosa in Korea

Cyclopeptide toxins of lethal amanitas: Compositions, distribution and phylogenetic implication

Lethal amanitas (Amanita sect. Phalloideae) are responsible for 90% of all fatal mushroom poisonings. Since 2000, more than ten new lethal Amanita species have been discovered and some of them had caused severe mushroom poisonings in China. However, the contents and distribution of cyclopeptides in these lethal mushrooms remain poorly known. In this study, the diversity of major cyclopeptide toxins in seven Amanita species from Eastern Asia and three species from Europe and North America were systematically analyzed, and a new approach to inferring phylogenetic relationships using cyclopeptide profile was evaluated for the first time. The results showed that there were diversities of the cyclopeptides among lethal Amanita species, and cyclopeptides from Amanita rimosa and Amanita fuligineoides were reported for the first time. The amounts of amatoxins in East Asian Amanita species were significantly higher than those in European and North American species. The analysis of distribution of amatoxins and phallotoxins in various Amanita species demonstrated that the content of phallotoxins was higher than that of amatoxins in Amanita phalloides and Amanita virosa. In contrast, the content of phallotoxins was significantly lower than that of amatoxins in all East Asian lethal Amanita species tested. However, the distribution of amatoxins and phallotoxins in different tissues showed the same tendency. Eight cyclopeptides and three unknown compounds were identified using cyclopeptide standards and high-resolution MS. Based on the cyclopeptide profiles, phylogenetic relationships of lethal amanitas were inferred through a dendrogram generated by UPGMA method. The results showed high similarity to the phylogeny established previously based on the multi-locus DNA sequences.

Decision-Making for the Detection of Amatoxin Poisoning: A Comparative Study of Standard Analytical Methods

Amatoxin-containing mushroom poisonings are recorded worldwide and the frequency increases due to confusion with other macrofungi. Affected regions are characterized by important disparities in relation to available technological equipment for analytical identification of amatoxins. In this context the present study was designed to define advantages and disadvantages of the most accessible standard analytical methods for amatoxin detection. Several methods were compared: (1) a commercialized immunoassay kit, (2) standard high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and (3) high-performance thin layer chromatography (HP-TLC). For each method, linearity, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ) and recovery were determined. Six macrofungi were analysed using these compared methods, three known to contain amatoxins: Amanita phalloides, Amanita virosa, Lepiota josserandii, and three free-amatoxin containing macrofungi: Amanita muscaria, Macrolepiota procera and Omphalotus olearius. Our results will allow for a choice of method with full knowledge of advantages and disadvantages of each technique as a function of local technological possibilities when facing suspected poisoning due to amatoxin-containing mushrooms. The final aim is to be able to reach faster and effective diagnosis in order to save a patient's life.

ドクツルタケ中毒による昏睡型急性肝不全に対し急性血液浄化療法を併用し救命しえた1症例

ドクツルタケ中毒による昏睡型急性肝不全に対し急性血液浄化療法を併用し救命しえた1症例

Silibinin for cyclopeptide mushroom poisonings

Much has been published in emergency medicine and clinical toxicology literature regarding mushroom poisoning management. However, few articles in pharmacy publications have addressed the management of such emergencies. Interestingly, a recently published comprehensive practical review of 37 antidotes, along with pharmacists' role in their storage, selection, and use, excluded mushroom poisoning antidotes.1 We wish to familiarize health-system pharmacists with silibinin, an investigational antidote for poisoning with cyclopeptide-containing mushrooms (CCMs). CCMs are the cause of most mushroom-related deaths worldwide.2 Ingestion of cyclopeptides—including amatoxins, phallotoxins, and virotoxins— can result in potentially fatal hepatotoxicity. CCMs are commonly called “destroying angel,” “angel of death,” and “death caps.” Examples of CCMs include Amanita phalloides, Amanita virosa, Galerina autumnalis, Galerina marginata, and Lepiota josserandi. Toxicity of cyclopeptides may result from a-amanitin, a bicyclic octapeptide, which inhibits RNA polymerase II and, therefore, DNA transcription. Organs and tissues primarily affected are those dependent on high rates of protein synthesis, notably the gastrointestinal tract, liver, and kidneys. The estimated human lethal dose of a-amatoxin is 0.1 mg/kg. Ingestion of one A. phalloides mushroom containing 5–8 mg of amatoxin is potentially fatal.

Diversity of macrofungal genus Russula and Amanita in Hirpora Wildlife Sanctuary, Southern Kashmir Himalayas

Pala SA, Wani AH, Mir RA. 2012. Diversity of macrofungal genus Russula and Amanita in Hirpora Wildlife Sanctuary, Southern Kashmir Himalayas. Biodiversitas 13: 65-71. The Hirpora Wildlife Sanctuary that extends over an area of 114 km2 lies in the Pir Panjal range at a distance of 70 km in south-west of summer capital Srinagar. It is rich in biodiversity including macrofungal diversity. The Sanctuary has been subjected to high ecological and anthropogenic disturbance due to the construction of Mughal road which is major threat for its biodiversity. Since there is hardly any report of documentation of macrofungi from this sanctuary. In this back drop a survey was carried out during the year 2010 and 2011 to explore and invetorise macrofungal diversity of the sanctuary. During thesurvey a no of macrofungi were documented, among which Amanita and Russula were dominant genus represented by 7 species each. All the 14 species viz. Amanita ceciliae (Berk. & Broome) Bas. Amanita flavoconia G.F. Atk., Amanita muscaria var. formosa Pers., Amanita pantherina (Fr.) Krombh., Amanita phalloides (Fr.) Link., Amanita vaginata (Bull. ex Fr.) Vitt., Amanita virosa (Fr.) Bertillon, Russula aeruginea Fr., Russula atropurpurea (Krombh.) Britz., Russula aurea Pers., Russula cyanoxantha (Schaeff.) Fr., Russula delica Fr. Russula emetica (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Gray. and Russula nobilis Velen. are ectomycorrhizal in nature and among them Russula aeruginea Fr. is reported first time from the Kashmir.

English

Three species of fungi were recorded for the first time from Iran (Amanita virosa,Russula vesca and Russula persicina). The species was collected from the forests of Asalem and Talesh in Gilan Province. Gilan province is located in north of Iran and southwest of Caspian Sea. The three specimens of macroscopic fungi belonged to the Amanitaceae and Russulaceae classes, which are new records for Iranian fungus flora. These species also belonged to the subdivision Basidiomycotina. In this study, the morphological characteristics of these three species are presented. Key words: Amanita, Russula, Gilan, Iran.

Simultaneous analysis of α-amanitin, β-amanitin, and phalloidin in toxic mushrooms by liquid chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry

An entire procedure for simultaneous analysis of α-amanitin, β-amanitin, and phalloidin in mushrooms by liquid chromatography (LC) electrospray ionization (ESI) time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometry (MS) has been optimized and established. We used a hydrophilic interaction column TSK-gel Amide-80 3 μm for LC separation, which enabled the simultaneous detection of the three toxins and internal standard microcystin RR. After homogenizing mushroom debris with methanol acidified with trifluoroacetic acid, the extract solution was subjected to solid-phase extraction with an Oasis HLB cartridge. The eluate was applied to the LC-ESI-TOF MS instrument. The calibration curves for the three toxins showed good linearity over the range of 100–1000 ng/g. The detection limits (signal-to-noise ratio = 3) for α-amanitin, β-amanitin, and phalloidin were about 30, 30, and 10 ng/g, respectively. The recovery rates of the three toxins at 100, 500, and 1000 ng/g were in the range of 53.1%–69.6%. The accuracy and precision (both intraday and interday) at 100, 500, and 1000 ng/g ranged from 87.9% to 117% and from 3.58% to 15.6%, respectively. Using the present method, the concentrations of the three toxins in the caps, stems, and roots of the toxic mushroom Amanita virosa were measured. The described method should be applicable to measurement of the Amanita toxins in human specimens, such as urine and blood of poisoned subjects.

Naturally-Occurring Cyclopeptides: Structures and Bioactivity

Cyclic peptides are a special bioactive group of compounds with interesting pharmacological and biochemical properties. Different natural sources are mentioned in this paper, but interest is focused on those cyclopeptides isolated from higher plants and higher fungi. Cyclopeptides occur in higher plant species, which belong to the following families: Annonaceae, Araliaceae, Asteraceae, Caryophyllaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Labiatae, Linaceae, Olacaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, Schizandraceae, Solanaceae, and Violaceae. Basidiomycetes is the group of higher fungi, which has shown to be rich in cyclopeptides, e.g., Amanita, Conocybe, Lepiota, Galerina, and Omphalotus species. Usually these compounds are associated to a toxic response in mammals, as well as to cytotoxic, insecticidal, antimalarial, estrogenic, sedative, nematicidal, antimicrobial, immunosuppressive, and enzyme-inhibitory activities. Structures are elucidated by chemical methods and spectroscopic techniques. Configurational and conformational analyses of some bioactive cyclopeptides are discussed. Conformational studies of the natural cyclopeptides and their derivatives are related to the stereochemical requirements for these bioactive compounds. Keywords: heterocyclopeptides, Phencyclopeptines, m-Ansa Compounds, Proline-rich Cyclic peptides, Amanita virosa

Pathological effects of the mushroom toxin α-amanitin on BALB/c mice

The pathological effects of α-amanitin on BALB/c mice after receiving intravenous injection were evaluated by RP-HPLC and mouse genome oligonucleotide microarray. The content of α-amanitin in Amanita virosa was about 2833.8 μg/g dry fruiting body. The liver and kidneys showed critical pathological changes after α-amanitin poisoning, and sera BUN, Crea, ALT, AST, TBIL and DBIL were the sensitive markers. The compound α-amanitin was detected in liver and kidney tissue homogenates by RP-HPLC after 48 h. The results of mouse genome oligonucleotide microarray showed 146 genes’ expression changed, which formed the alternant network. The expression of 66 genes decreased, while 80 ones increased with more than two-fold differential expression after 48 h. The compound α-amanitin influenced not only RNA polymerase II, but also the expression of its associated genes. The application of mouse oligo chip provided valuable data for further understanding the biological properties and molecular pathogenesis of α-amanitin, also might be helpful for screening the curative drug for α-amanitin intoxication.

The toxicology of [formula omitted]: the destroying angel

This paper examines the biology and medical consequences of ingesting the potentially lethal poisonous mushroom, Amanita virosa , the Destroying Angel. The fungus, its structure, distribution and toxic components are described. Symptoms of human poisoning by A. virosa are described, following the order of Homeopathic Repertories. Laboratory values for comparison with normal values of haematology, biochemistry and urine analyses are given.

Abstracts from Other Presentations at the International Symposium on Toxins and Natural Products in Honor of Professor Anthony T. Tu

Abstracts from Other Presentations at the International Symposium on Toxins and Natural Products in Honor of Professor Anthony T. Tu

Mushroom poisoning—from diarrhea to liver transplantation

Mushroom poisoning from the genus Amanita is a medical emergency, with Amanita phalloides being the most common species. The typical symptoms of nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea are nonspecific and can be mistaken for gastroenteritis. If not adequately treated, hepatic and renal failure may ensue within several days of ingestion. In this case series, patients poisoned with Amanita virosa are described with a spectrum of clinical presentations and outcomes ranging from complete recovery to fulminant hepatic failure. Although there are no controlled clinical trials, a few anecdotal studies provide the basis for regimens recommended to treat Amanita poisoning. Use of i.v. penicillin G is supported by most reports. Silibinin, although preferred over penicillin, is not easily available in the United States. In those with acute liver failure, liver transplantation can be life saving.

Mushroom poisoning-from diarrhea to liver transplantation

Mushroom poisoning from the genus Amanita is a medical emergency, with Amanita phalloides being the most common species. The typical symptoms of nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea are nonspecific and can be mistaken for gastroenteritis. If not adequately treated, hepatic and renal failure may ensue within several days of ingestion. In this case series, patients poisoned with Amanita virosa are described with a spectrum of clinical presentations and outcomes ranging from complete recovery to fulminant hepatic failure. Although there are no controlled clinical trials, a few anecdotal studies provide the basis for regimens recommended to treat Amanita poisoning. Use of i.v. penicillin G is supported by most reports. Silibinin, although preferred over penicillin, is not easily available in the United States. In those with acute liver failure, liver transplantation can be life saving.