Altitude Record Research Articles

Himalayan Mountaineering, Imperial Masculinity and Altitude Records Before Everest

ABSTRACT Across the nineteenth century, European surveyors, explorers and mountaineers often sought to constitute the Himalaya as spaces of imperial duty, escape from civilisation, and manly experiences against and in nature. Rather than focusing on the homosociality of the better known climbing ventures of the twentieth century, this article instead considers the period before Mount Everest became the main prize. In particular, it examines an eclectic mix of Himalayan expeditions that made claims to the world ‘altitude record’: that is, the highest height ever climbed above sea level. The different ways that climbers discussed and doubted these record-seeking climbs in their accounts, and especially in talks at the Royal Geographical Society in London, provide a series of snapshots into manly self-fashioning around suffering and self-reliance at the edge of the British Empire. Here the masculinities of non-European guides and porters (especially Gurkhas) also always provided both a foil and a challenge. Ultimately, attempts on the altitude record reveal the way that casting the Himalaya as a space for the narration of masculine ideals and imperial expansion could be both mutually reinforcing and in conflict. Expressions of homosociality nevertheless also shifted across the nineteenth century, with the filling in of the last ‘blank spaces’ on the map seemingly narrowing the canvas for manly outdoor experiences. This was compounded by the way the Himalaya were constituted and maintained as spaces for manly experiences in part by the exclusion of women, even as women like Fanny Bullock Workman were themselves climbing towards record heights.

Bridging the Technology Gap: Strategies for Hybrid Rocket Engines

Hybrid rocket propulsion, first demonstrated by the Russian GIRD-09 rocket in 1933, combines liquid oxidizer and solid fuel for thrust generation. Despite numerous advantages, such as enhanced safety, controllability, and potential environmental benefits, hybrid propulsion has yet to achieve its full potential in space applications. In recent years, the research on hybrid propulsion has gained enormous momentum in both academia and industry. Recent accomplishments such as the altitude record for student rockets (64 km), the launch of the first electric pump-fed hybrid rocket, and a successful 25 s hovering test highlight the potential of hybrid rockets. However, although the hybrid community is growing constantly, industrial utilizations and in-space validations do not yet exist. In this work, we reassess the possibilities of hybrid rocket engines by presenting potential fields of applications from the literature. Most importantly, we identify the technical challenges that hinder the breakthrough of hybrid propulsion in the space sector and evaluate the technologies and approaches necessary to bridge the gaps in hybrid rocket development.

Altitudinal record of the jaguaroundi (Herpailurus yagouaroundi), in a temperate forest of the Neovolcanic Belt in the State of Mexico

We recorded with camera traps two jaguarundis (Herpailurus yagouaroundi) in the Hermenegildo Galeana State Park, Tenancingo, State of Mexico, at 2475 masl in 2016 and 2017. This is the first record of the species in the temperate forests of the Neovolcanic Belt in the center of the country and the highest altitude record of the species in Mexico. We assume that the jaguarundi used the forests of the state park seasonally, moving from lower elevations with tropical vegetation, since we only recorded it on two occasions, separated by six months (november 2016-may 2017), even though we sampled throughout over 23 months (july 2016-june 2018). In our study we obtained records of 12 additional species of mammals, including the bobcat (Lynx rufus), the coyote (Canis latrans), the gray fox (Urocyon cineroagenteus), the coati (Nasua narica), and the raccoon (Procyon lotor). The discovery of a high number of medium-sized mammals in the Hermenegildo Galeana State Park, very close to populated areas such as San Antonio Agua Bendita and Monte de Pozo, located in the reserve influence area, highlights the importance of protected areas, in this case of a state reserve, for the conservation of biological diversity at the regional and national levels.

Antikuna, a new genus with seven new species from Peru (Araneae: Theraphosidae: Theraphosinae) and the highest altitude record for the family

ABSTRACT Antikuna, a new genus from Peruvian Andes, was proposed, diagnosed and described, to include seven new species: Antikuna cernickai sp. nov., A. cimrmani sp. nov., A. cyanofemur sp. nov., A. majkusi sp. nov., A. sapallanga sp. nov., A. urayrumi sp. nov. and A. valladaresi sp. nov. Antikuna gen. nov. is characterised by having the type III urticating setae concentrated in one dorsal patch, ventral side of maxillae with short spiniform setae in apical half, the male bulb carrying four keels, prolateral superior, prolateral inferior, apical and subapical keel terminating in a short tooth, and the female spermathecae consisting of two separate divergent seminal receptacles, carrying one or more ventral keels, and dorsally with distinct oval apical lobe, which is narrower than the receptacle neck. In the males of Antikuna gen. nov. the flexion of metatarsi I is between both branches of tibial apophyses and prolateral cymbial lobe is distinctly larger than retrolateral one. Antikuna gen. nov. inhabits altitudes above 3,800 m a.s.l. and A. valladaresi sp. nov. was found in the altitude of 4,689 m a.s.l. representing a new highest altitude record for the family Theraphosidae. urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:537E9E34-2888-4F99-B4A9-74A965F0E456

Patrón de actividad de Chironectes minimus (Didelphimorphia: Didelphidae) en ecosistemas periurbanos (Valle de Aburrá-Colombia), con anotaciones sobre su distribución altitudinal

La Chucha de Agua, Chironectes minimus, es quizás uno de los marsupiales más crípticos en el Neotrópico. A pesar de que cuenta con registros puntuales sobre su presencia a lo largo de su distribución, sus reportes son escasos en ecosistemas circundantes a zonas periurbanas. Aquí reportamos una nueva localidad de presencia para la especie al suroriente del Valle de Aburrá, Antioquia, Colombia. A partir de análisis de los patrones actividad, se identificó que la especie presentó una tendencia nocturna, principalmente entre las 19h00 y las 00h00. Con respecto a la revisión y sobre su distribución altitudinal, a pesar de que existen registros a diferentes intervalos altitudinales, los registros sobre los 2.000 msnm son escasos. Reportamos un registro a 2.660 msnm y corroboramos uno a 2.562 msnm en el área de estudio. Igualmente, a partir de la revisión resaltamos el registro de mayor altitud a 2.800 msnm el cual ampliaría su rango actual.

The first record of the genus Belenois (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) from China.

BackgroundThe family Pieridae is a large group of butterflies which plays an important role in evolutionary biology and contains many potential pests (Courtney 1986). Pieridae is a cosmopolitan family while the tropics harbour higher species richness. In a very recent expedition to the Chinese-Indian border area in Tibet Autonomous Region, a migratory species, Belenois aurota (Fabricius, 1793), was discovered for the first time, which comprises the first record of the genus Belenois in China and the highest altitude record of this species.New informationThe species B. aurota (Fabricius, 1793) is the first record of the genus Belenois from China. The specimen was collected at an altitude of about 3,000 m in Tibet Autonomous Region. Relevant details are presented for the species.

New records on distribution and habitat of the lesser long-nosed bat (Leptonycteris yerbabuenae) in Honduras

The lesser long-nosed bat (Leptonycteris yerbabuenae Martínez & Villa-R, 1940) is a specialized nectar feeding species found from southern USA to Nicaragua in Central America, mostly in dry forest. We sampled bats using mist nets and Anabat detectors, and also looked for them at refuges and other sites in Honduras from 2011 to 2016. The lesser long-nosed bat is known in Honduras from only two localities in the southern dry forests below 100 m elevation, and there are no recent records of this species in the country. Our objective is to report new records on distribution and habitat of the lesser long-nosed bat in Honduras. We found eight lesser long-nosed bats at Cerro de Hula, Francisco Morazán department in 2012, and 10 at La Anonilla, Choluteca department, southern Honduras in 2015. Based on these 18 individuals of the lesser long-nosed bat, we report two new localities in Honduras, an altitude record, and the use of another habitat other than the dry forest. The highest point registered was at 1710 m a.s.l. in pastureland with forest remnants in an area heavily impacted by human activities. The new localities are found in the Subtropical Moist Forest. Populations of long-nosed bats in Honduras are probably resident and may include altitudinal movements. Although this species has been described widely in North America, its behavior in Honduras is practically unknown. It is a key species for the tequila and mezcal industry, but its range extends beyond the tequila production area, where it maintains a key role as a pollinator and link between habitats. As a result, research and conservation efforts should be an international goal.

DNA barcoding elucidates the new altitude record and range-extension of lesser-known bullfrog (Hoplobatrachus litoralis) in northeast India

The molecular information of lesser-known bullfrog, Hoplobatrachus litoralis is restricted from Bangladesh (type locality) and Myanmar. The morphological observation further evidenced the range-extension of this species from India and Myanmar. Here, we collected the H. litoralis specimen from the Dampa Tiger Reserve, Mizoram state and provides a new altitude record (268 m) and range-extension in northeast India. The DNA barcoding with mitochondrial Cytochrome b gene discriminates H. litoralis from other congeners with sufficient genetic distance (13.9% to 27.8%). The Bayesian phylogeny revealed monophyletic clustering of all five Hoplobatrachus species and showed the sister relationship of H. litoralis and H. tigerinus. The generated sequences of H. litoralis from northeast India depicted shallow divergence (1.5%) from the sequences generated from Bangladesh, indicates the possible genetic variability due to the alteration of the ecological niche. We suggested further physiological and molecular study with extensive sampling of this species to confirm their actual range distribution, high-altitude adaptation, and gene flow.

Range extension of the Bengal monitor (Varanus bengalensis) for the Trans-Himalayan Region with an altitude record for monitor lizards.

The Bengal monitor lizard or Common Indian monitor lizard (Varanus bengalensis Daudin, 1802) is classified as Least Concern under the IUCN and listed under the Schedule-I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act 1972. Further, the trade of the species is prohibited as the species is listed in Appendix I of CITES. It is widely distributed over Western Asia, the Indian Subcontinent, and Southeast Asia (Koch et al. 2013). It is reported to occupy both terrestrial as well as freshwater habitats from desert areas to floodplains, scrubland to forests, in different types of terrains at elevations below 1500m (Auffenberg 1994; Papenfuss et al. 2010). Body size of individuals varies from 61 to 175 cm from the tip of the snout to the end of the tail (Auffenberg 1994; Losos and Greene, 1998). Adults are generally grey or greenish-grey in color, with a ventral pattern of grey to black crossbars from the chin to the tail. Adult individuals are less contrasting and have a less distinct pattern than younger individuals. The species shows a sexual dimorphism, with males being heavier (around 7.18 to 10 kg) than females which are about 40% smaller in size (Papenfuss et al. 2010).

Inventarisasi Jenis dan Distribusi Habitat Rotan pada Hutan Dataran Tinggi dan Dataran Rendah di Kalimantan Selatan

Rattans are spiny climbing palms in the Old World tropics and subtropics. Some species are the source of cane for the cane furniture industry in Indonesia. The large number of rattan species and their wide geographical range is matched by great ecological diversity. The restriction of rattan species to different climatic zones and altitudinal range suggests that these species may have precise climatic requirements and also altitudes. The research was conducted on upland and lowland of natural forest in South Kalimantan. The data collection used survey with transect method. Volume of rattans in upland forest was relatively lower than lowland forest. In altitudinal range in South Kalimantan, rattans were found from sea-level up to 870 m, the highest altitude record being held by Calamus javensis, Daemonorops micracantha, Calamus pilocellus, and Calamus sp. (rotan tunggal). While the lowest altitude record was occupied by Calamus trachycoleus. Rattans in natural forest require light intensity, humidity and temperature were 18– 65%, 60 – 70%, 28 – 33oC, respectively.

Two new earthworm species of the genus Amynthas (Oligochaeta: Megascolecidae) from central Taiwan, with comments on some recent species assignments in Amynthas and Metaphire.

This study describes two new species of earthworms belonging to the genus Amynthas (Oligochaeta: Megascolecidae) from central Taiwan. They are named Amynthas luridus sp. nov. and Amynthas ruiyenensis sp. nov. Both species are octothecal with the former found at elevations of 1500-2300 m and the latter at an elevation of 2200 m from the Central Mountain Range. In addition, DNA barcodes are made available for the first time for the following species: Amynthas catenus Tsai et al., 2001, Amynthas exiguus aquilonius Tsai et al., 2001, Amynthas proasacceus Tsai et al., 2001, Amynthas hohuanmontis Tsai et al., 2002, Amynthas tessellatus Shen et al., 2002, Amynthas fenestrus Shen et al., 2003, Amynthas tantulus Shen et al., 2003, and Amynthas uvaglandularis Shen et al., 2003. Furthermore, Amynthas exiguus ssp. aquilonius Tsai et al., 2001 distributed at elevations of 2200-3000 m in the Central Mountain Range is elevated to species level, as A. aquilonius Tsai et al., 2001. The highest altitude record so far for the exotic Eukerria saltensis (Beddard, 1895) in Taiwan, 2200 m above sea level, is documented. Moreover, some recent assignments of species to Amynthas and Metaphire and synonymies of names are critically discussed. It is argued that idiosyncratic genus concepts, inadequate species comparisons, and unexplained synonymies should be avoided. A hitherto undetected and possibly monophyletic species group of mainly KoreanAmynthasspecies in theA. tokioensis-group is indicated, characterized by numerous genital papillae around each spermathecal pore and male porophore, large ampullae, long diverticula, large prostate glands, and manicate intestinal caeca.The namesA. bimaculata,A. silvaticaandA. surcata(Ishizuka, 1999), as well asA.odaesanensis,A.righii, A.fasciiformis,andA. sanchongensisHong James, 2001, previously declared as junior synonyms ofA. tappensis(Ohfuchi, 1935), are revalidated.

Anthropogenic impacts in the Changbai Mountain region of NE China over the last 150years: geochemical records of peat and altitude effects.

Geochemical records from peatlands are important tools for the interpretation of environmental signals preserved in the peat and the understanding anthropogenic impacts on remote mountain regions. In this paper, six 210Pb-dated peat cores located at 500-1900m above sea level (asl) in the Changbai Mountains were used to reconstruct the pollution history over the past 150years in northeastern (NE) China. The cores physicochemical parameters and 10 key chemical elements were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES). Results from loss on ignition (LOI), total organic carbon (TOC), and lithogenic element (Ti, Fe, and Mn) analysis show that the peatlands (Ch, Yc1 and Jb) over 900m asl are ombrotrophic and the lower altitude peatlands (Dng, Jc, and Ha) are minerotrophic. There is a decreasing trend of trace element distribution with the altitude, mainly due to the local source input. The content of the magnetic particles and trace elements (Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn) as well as their accumulation rates document 150years of pollution history in the Changbai Mountain region. There is a significant elevated pattern of the geochemical records after the New China, which might mark the start date of Anthropocene since the 1950s in this region. The peatlands at the lower altitude (i.e., Dng and Ha) record the earliest fingerprints of metal contamination due to the starting period of massive reclaiming and immigrating in the Changbai Mountain region. The major increase of trace elements since the 1980s probably suggests a significant deterioration of the local environment due to the fast industrial and urbanization development after the Reform and Opening up in China.

Touching the Sky: Coccinellids (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) at High Altitudes in South America.

Records of extreme altitudes where several coccinellid species from South America inhabit the Andes of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru are provided. After an intensive review of several entomological collections and literature, records for 35 species with at least one location over 3500-m elevation were obtained, including the genera Cycloneda (ten species), Eriopis (15 species and one subspecies), Harmonia (one species), Hippodamia (two species), Mimoscymnus (two species), Psyllobora (one species), and Stenadalia (four species). In total, 184 location records are listed, of which 119 were from between 3000 and 4000m, 57 between 4000 and 4900m and eight above 4900m, with the highest altitude record at 5250m for Eriopis minima Hofmann. All records above 4000m were obtained in the Puna biogeographic province within the Paramo Puneña biogeographic subregion. These records are the highest altitudes observed for the American continent and by far surpass others known for coccinellids worldwide. Several species of coccinellids living in sympatry at these high altitudes were verified, and in some cases, in situ development was inferred by the presence of immature stages. These findings are important to foresee the future effects of global warming that will affect especially the biological communities of extreme altitudes.

The Neotropical genus Hapalotremus Simon, 1903 (Araneae: Theraphosidae), with the description of seven new species and the highest altitude record for the family

ABSTRACTNew specimens of the genus Hapalotremus (Theraphosinae) are revised based on the examination of types and additional material collected in Argentina, Bolivia and Peru. A new generic diagnosis is proposed. New information and illustrations are provided for known species and seven new species were recognized and are newly described and illustrated. Hence, Hapalotremus comprises 10 valid species, distributed along the Andes and Yungas in western South America. All species are keyed and mapped. New taxonomic features are included in the descriptions and the detail of embolus keels morphology and positions are described for the first time for the genus. Information on species habitat is included. The highest altitude record for a Theraphosidae spider, living at 4524 m above sea level, is reported.www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:1C028676-CCD9-4654-A755-6ACA3BCE3E98

A Record Flight of the Hybrid Sounding Rocket HEROS 3

Hybrid rocket propulsion offers inherent safety during handling and launch operations at low cost. This makes it not only attractive for space tourism applications like SpaceShipTwo but also for sounding rockets and for educational activities with students. This has been successfully demonstrated by the HyEnD student project from the University of Stuttgart: On November 8th, 2016 at 10:30 a.m. the hybrid sounding rocket HEROS 3 was launched from the Esrange Space Center to an apogee altitude of 32,300 m (106,000 ft). This set a new altitude record for European student and amateur rocketry. Furthermore, this is a world altitude record for hybrid rockets built by students. It was successfully recovered with the drogue and main parachute being released. The rocket was powered by a 10 kN design thrust hybrid rocket engine with a paraffin-based fuel and Nitrous Oxide (N2O) as the oxidizer. The combustion efficiency was verified to be above 97% in ground tests. Liquid burn time in the flight was for 15 s with an additional combustion of gaseous N2O in the blow-down mode of about 10 s. The rocket was 7.5 m long with an empty mass of about 75 kg. The rocket structure was made completely from light-weight carbon fibre and glass fibre reinforced plastic.

Hybrid Experimental Rocket Stuttgart: A Low-Cost Technology Demonstrator

On 8 November 2016 at 1030 hrs, the Hybrid Experimental Rocket Stuttgart (HEROS) 3 was launched from the European Space and Sounding Rocket Range (ESRANGE) Space Center to an apogee altitude of 32,300 m (106,000 ft). This set a new altitude record for European student and amateur rocketry and a world altitude record for hybrid rockets built by students. The 7.5-m-long rocket was using nitrous oxide () and a paraffin-based fuel to produce 10,000 N of thrust. The dry mass of the rocket was only 75 kg thanks to a carbon fiber structure for the most part. The rocket performed the record-breaking flight at perfect weather and visibility conditions, reaching a maximum airspeed of and Mach 2.3. The rocket performed a soft landing with two parachutes and can be reused. Flight data and engine performance data are published and analyzed. The flight data show excellent stability of the rocket. Engine performance data prove very high efficiency and stable combustion. The subsystem design and verification before the launch is reported. Engine and flight trajectory simulations show very good agreement with the flight data. Furthermore, the overall project, rocket design, and subsystems, as well as the launch campaign, are presented here in detail.

Paleocene to Pliocene low-latitude, high-elevation basins of southern Tibet: Implications for tectonic models of India-Asia collision, Cenozoic climate, and geochemical weathering

The elevation history of the Tibetan Plateau promises insight into the mechanisms and dynamics that develop and sustain high topography over tens of millions of years. We present the first nearly continuous Cenozoic elevation history from two sedimentary basins on the southern Tibetan Plateau within the latest Cretaceous to Eocene Gangdese arc. Oxygen-isotope and Δ47 clumped-isotope compositions of nonmarine carbonates allow us to constrain carbonate formation temperature and reconstruct the paleoprecipitation record of the Eocene to Pliocene Oiyug Basin and Paleocene to Eocene Penbo Basin. We exploit the systematic decrease of surface temperature and meteoric water δ18O values with elevation to derive paleoelevation estimates for these basins. Minimally altered and unaltered pedogenic and lacustrine carbonates from the Oiyug Basin yield Δ47, CDES (relative to the carbon dioxide equilibrium scale [CDES]) values of 0.625‰ to 0.755‰, which correspond to temperatures of 1−30 °C using a Δ47 thermometer for low-temperature carbonates. Similarly, the Penbo Basin yielded Δ47, CDES values of 0.701‰ to 0.726‰, corresponding to temperatures of 6−12 °C. The apparent evidence for survival of primary clumped-isotope values in the face of substantial burial and heating is an important result for the field of carbonate clumped-isotope thermometry. Our paleoelevation estimates for the Eocene to Pliocene Oiyug Basin (∼6.5−4.1 km) support previous evidence that high elevations were attained in southern Tibet by at least ca. 30 Ma. Stable-isotope results allow for the possibility of significant topographic subsidence during the Miocene as a result of regional extension. In the Penbo Basin, our paleoelevation estimates for the Paleocene to Eocene Nianbo Formation (4.4 +1.3/−1.7 km) and Eocene Pana Formation (4.1 +1.2/−1.6 km) extend the altitude record of the southern Tibetan Plateau to pre−India-Asia collision. These results support the “Lhasaplano” model of an Andean-type continental margin tectonic system. The rise of the Himalayas and Tibet is often invoked to understand isotopic proxies for global chemical weathering in the Cenozoic and has constrained the debate on the nature of CO2−climate−weathering feedbacks. The nature of the Tibetan paleoelevations from pre- to postcollision, as presented here, indicates that high relief at low latitude prevailed on the Asian margin much earlier than previously thought. Thus, high topography alone at low latitude is not sufficient to account for the Cenozoic weathering proxy record.

The Late-Glacial and Holocene Marboré Lake sequence (2612 m a.s.l., Central Pyrenees, Spain): Testing high altitude sites sensitivity to millennial scale vegetation and climate variability

This paper presents the environmental, climate and vegetation changes reconstructed for the last 14.6kyrcal BP from the Marboré Lake sedimentary sequence, the highest altitude record (2612m a.s.l.) in the Pyrenees studied up to date. We investigate the sensitivity of this high altitude site to vegetational and climate dynamics and altitudinal shifts during the Holocene by comparing palynological spectra of the fossil sequence and pollen rain content from current moss pollsters. We hypothesize that the input of sediments in lakes at such altitude is strongly controlled by ice phenology (ice-free summer months) and that during cold periods Pollen Accumulation Rate (PAR) and Pollen Concentration (PC) reflect changes in ice-cover and thus is linked to temperature changes. Low sedimentation rates and low PC and PAR occurred during colder periods as the Younger Dryas (GS-1) and the Holocene onset (12.6–10.2kyrcal BP), suggesting that the lake-surface remained ice-covered for most of the year during these periods. Warmer conditions are not evident until 10.2kyrcal BP, when an abrupt increase in sedimentation rate, PC and PAR occur, pointing to a delayed onset of the Holocene temperature increase at high altitude. Well-developed pinewoods and deciduous forest dominated the mid montane belt since 9.3kyrcal BP until mid-Holocene (5.2kyrcal BP). A downwards shift in the deciduous forest occurred after 5.2kyrcal BP, in agreement with the aridity trend observed at a regional and Mediterranean context. The increase of herbaceous taxa during the late-Holocene (3.5kyrcal BP-present) reflects a general trend to reduced montane forest, as anthropogenic disturbances were not evident until 1.3kyrcal BP when Olea proportions from lowland areas and other anthropogenic indicators clearly expand. Our study demonstrates the need to perform local experimental approaches to check the effect of ice phenology on high altitude lakes sensitivity to vegetation changes to obtain more realistic reconstructions of mountain vegetation belts dynamics.

Segundo registro de holbrookia approximans (squamata: phrynosomatidae) para el estado de Aguascalientes, México y record de mayor altitud.

En el presente trabajo se documenta la presencia de Holbrookia approximans en el estado de Aguascalientes, México, después de 43 años de su último registro, en Las Negritas, municipio de El Llano, lo que representa un nuevo registro municipal. Adicionalmente una nueva localidad para Zacatecas, en la mesa Los Encinitos, municipio de Pinos, que representa el registro de mayor altitud para la especie.

Recent Sight Records of Black Microhylid Frog, Melanobatrachus indicus Beddome, 1878 in Marayoor Forests, Idukki District, Kerala

The Black Microhylid Frog Melanobatrachus indicus is a rare and endangered species known only from very few specimens from the southernmost part of the Western Ghats. A good population of these species was reported for the first time from the highland montane shola forests Marayoor, Idukki district, Kerala. The present report forms the highest altitude record for the species, about 1700 m and also accounts for the most numerous populations ever recorded for the species from the Western Ghats. An updated review of the present distribution of the Black Microhylid frog is also provided.