Alternative Transport Systems Research Articles

Efficient biosynthesis of 3-hydroxypropionic acid from glucose through multidimensional engineering of Escherichia coli

3-Hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP) is a top value-added chemical with multifaceted application in chemical, material, and food field. However, limited availability of robust strains and elevated fermentation costs currently impose constraints on sustainable biosynthesis of 3-HP. Herein, transporter engineering, metabolic dynamic modulation, and enzyme engineering were combined to address above limitations. First, a glucose-utilizing 3-HP biosynthetic pathway was constructed in Escherichia coli, followed by recruiting alternative glucose transport system to overcome center metabolism overflow. Next, the Cra (a transcription factor)-dependent switch was applied to autonomously fine-tune carbon flux, which alleviated growth retardation and improved the 3-HP production. Subsequently, inactivation of glycerol facilitator (GlpF) increased intracellular glycerol levels and boosted 3-HP biosynthesis, but caused toxic intermediate 3-hydroxypropionaldehyde (3-HPA) accumulation. Furthermore, semi-rational design of aldehyde dehydrogenase (YdcW) increased its activity and eliminated 3-HPA accumulation. Finally, fed-batch fermentation of the final strain resulted in 52.73 g/L 3-HP, with a yield of 0.59 mol/mol glucose.

Holistic and integrated life cycle sustainability assessment of prospective biomass to liquid production in Germany

As a part of the developing bioeconomy, liquid biofuels may play an important role for transportation due to the hope for a sustainable drop-in alternative to substitute fossil fuels and maintaining existing economic infrastructures. In this case study we applied Holistic and Integrated Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment to a prospective technical concept for the production of biofuels from wood residues, sorghum and straw via gasification and Fischer-Tropsch synthesis located in the German federal state Brandenburg. Through this quantitative and qualitative sustainability assessment we identified synergies and hot-spots of biofuel production on a detailed and aggregated level, as well as compare the impacts to fossil fuels and other alternative transport systems. 99 social, ecological and economic indicator results addressing 14 out of 17 SDGs show contributions but also sustainability risks of such biofuels for the SDGs. The total substitution factor of impacts (f = 21.38) for all indicators of biofuels compared to fossil fuels indicates significantly higher impacts of biofuels production, in particular for land (SDG 15, f = 30.43), water (SDG 14, f = 125.57), consumption and production patterns (SDG 12, f = 54.11), low energy efficiency and maintaining problematic global supply chains and working conditions. However, the impacts on climate can be lower (SDG 13, f = 0.42), if residual heat is effectively and efficiently used. Comparing the transportation systems and use phases of fuels, all types of car-based individual transportation including fossil fuels (f = 6.50), biofuels (f = 9.16) and electric drive (f = 6.46) had significant higher impacts than transportation by train. Besides technological downsides, such as the high energy demand, biofuels may play a minor role for specific applications with no other alternative energy technologies in the future. In conclusion, it is very questionable whether such liquid biofuels are a suitable drop-in solution to substitute fossil fuels in a significant quantity. In a final discussion we referred to the necessary societal-ecological transformation with structural changes of production, consumption, political economy and global supply chains. In the future, Holistic and Integrated Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment will be further improved by closing indicator and database gaps, including a cost analysis and direct stakeholder participation, as well as absolute sustainability assessments on how much biofuel production is sustainable.

The MitoLuc Assay System for Accurate Real-Time Monitoring of Mitochondrial Protein Import Within Mammalian Cells

Mitochondrial protein import is critical for organelle biogenesis, bioenergetic function, and health. The mechanism of which is poorly understood, particularly of the mammalian system. To address this problem we have established an assay to quantitatively monitor mitochondrial import inside mammalian cells. The reporter is based on a split luciferase, whereby the large fragment is segregated in the mitochondrial matrix and the small complementary fragment is fused to the C-terminus of a purified recombinant precursor protein destined for import. Following import the complementary fragments combine to form an active luciferase–providing a sensitive, accurate and continuous measure of protein import. This advance allows detailed mechanistic examination of the transport process in live cells, including the analysis of import breakdown associated with disease, and high-throughput drug screening. Furthermore, the set-up has the potential to be adapted for the analysis of alternative protein transport systems within different cell types, and multicellular model organisms.

Analysis of generation and attraction in Bogor Regency (Case study: Tenjolaya sub-District, Tamansari sub-District and Tenjolaya sub-District)

<p>Tenjolaya Subdistrict, Tamansari Subdistrict, and Ciomas Subdistrict of Bogor District has an area of 61.74 km<sup>2</sup>, divided into 25 villages, and 1 urban-village with those total populations density are 4,819.7 people/km<sup>2</sup>. The increasing population and significant development in the region has increased the movement of traffic flows to and from the region, which is expected to cause some particular problems in traffic congestion on Road segments. This research aims to make the model of the trip generation and the trip attraction caused by land use such as education area, medical, office, lodging, physical fitness center and tourism in the three sub-districts. MKJI 2017 is used as a data processing guideline for the method of calculation of transport analysis. Then use Trip Generation Manual and modelled into SATURN software. Total trip generations from 3 sub-districts of the study area are 4,403.78 trips/hour, and with total trip attractions are 6,165.33 SMP/hour. The design of the transportation modelling equation for Ciomas subdistrict, Tamansari District, and Tenjolaya subdistrict is 21,230 – 0,950 (X). The Model of trip generation and trip attraction has a value of R2 = 0,9687. The level of service is obtained index in the range of A until D, with an average is B, indicating a relatively stable condition. although in some areas, it is still necessary to repair and improve road network infrastructure, and strive for a comfortable and efficient alternative public transport system (time, cost, energy) to transfer people from private vehicles to Public transport.</p>

Evidence for an alternative insulin transporter at the blood-brain barrier.

Accumulating evidence suggests there is an alternative insulin transporter besides the insulin receptor at the blood-brain barrier (BBB), responsible for shuttling insulin from the circulation into the brain. In this review, we summarize key features of the BBB and what makes it unique compared to other capillary beds; summarize what we know about insulin BBB transport; provide an extensive list of diseases, physiological states, and serum factors tested in modifying insulin BBB transport; and lastly, highlight potential alternative transport systems that may be involved in or have already been tested in mediating insulin BBB transport. Identifying the transport system for insulin at the BBB would aide in controlling central nervous system (CNS) insulin levels in multiple diseases and conditions including Alzheimer's disease (AD) and obesity, where availability of insulin to the CNS is limited.

Short Sea Shipping: Evidence from Campania, Southern Italy

Background: The urban transport systems of coastal cities are conditioned by the limitations placed by their coastal position on the expansion of radial networks. However, while the water around them compresses terrestrial routes, it simultaneously creates space for alternative transport systems to support urban and metropolitan mobility. Objective: This study aims to evaluate the feasibility of establishing new navigation lines to support certain coastal locations in the gulfs of Naples and Salerno in Campania (Italy) which, due to their nature, are particularly suitable for the movement of the huge tourist flows that affect the area under analysis. Methods: This study expands upon specific previous and ongoing experiences, clarifying their strengths and weaknesses, identifying the basic characteristics of hypothesized fast maritime lines, and drawing conclusions about their technical and economic feasibility. Results: Based on the level of detail available to the present study, the hypothesized service does not seem to offer complete economic-financial sustainability. The primary shortcoming lies in the resources needed to adapt technical structures and to support businesses during the initial phase of the project. Conclusions: The feasibility of new transport services depends on the extent to which existing traffic can be subtracted the modes of transport already in operation. In the absence of public subsidies, the speed, frequency, regularity and safety of such transport are crucial.

Riding the wave: Predicting the use of the bike-sharing system in Barcelona before and during COVID-19.

To simultaneously promote health, economic, and environmental sustainability, a number of cities worldwide have established bike-sharing systems (BSS) that complement the conventional public transport systems. As the rapid spread of COVID-19 becoming a global pandemic disrupted urban mobility due to government-imposed lockdowns and the heightened fear of infection in crowded spaces, populations were increasingly less likely to use public transportation and instead shifted toward alternative transport systems, including BSS. In this study, we use probabilistic machine learning in a quasi-experimental research design to identify how the relevance of a comprehensive set of factors to predict the use of Bicing (the BSS in Barcelona) may have changed as COVID-19 unfolded. We unpack the key factors in predicting the use of Bicing, uncovering evidence of increasing bike-related built infrastructure (e.g., tactical urbanism), trip distance, and the income levels of neighborhoods as the most relevant predictors. Moreover, we find that the relevance of the factors in predicting Bicing usage has generally decreased during the global pandemic, suggesting altered societal behavior. Our study enhances the understanding of BSS and societal behavior, which can have important implications for developing resilient programs for cities to adopt sustainable practices through transport policy, infrastructure planning, and urban development.

Developing a toolkit to assist in the decision-making process of logistics service providers to shift to the use of bimodal transport in South Africa

This paper seeks to contribute to research on the use of bimodal technology in South Africa through developing a toolkit that allows Logistics Service Providers (LSPs) to conduct investigations into the financial and practical suitability of the RailRunner bimodal technology for use in their business.The toolkit was developed by investigating the road-to-rail industry, by constructing a preliminary toolkit from inputs gained through literature and exploratory interviews. This included selection criteria for LSPs and a financial model for comparing operating costs of existing and alternative transport systems. A decision matrix was developed to assist LSPs towards analysing different transport methods. Validation interviews were conducted to confirm the validity and usefulness of the finalised toolkit.Preliminary results show that RailRunner would have to make sure that the reliability of their system is equal to or better than that of road transport alone. LSPs must also note that the RailRunner system is not a one-size-fits-all solution. Many factors need to be considered in the decision to use the system.The outcome achieved will benefit LSPs to make informed decisions regarding the implementation of bimodal technology and provides a foundation for future research into the systemic nature of implementing bimodal systems in South Africa.

Cryptosporidium felis differs from other Cryptosporidium spp. in codon usage.

Cryptosporidium spp. are important enteric pathogens in a wide range of vertebrates including humans. Previous comparative analysis revealed conservation in genome composition, gene content, and gene organization among Cryptosporidium spp., with a progressive reductive evolution in metabolic pathways and invasion-related proteins. In this study, we sequenced the genome of zoonotic pathogen Cryptosporidium felis and conducted a comparative genomic analysis. While most intestinal Cryptosporidium species have similar genomic characteristics and almost complete genome synteny, fewer protein-coding genes and some sequence inversions and translocations were found in the C. felis genome. The C. felis genome exhibits much higher GC content (39.6 %) than other Cryptosporidium species (24.3–32.9 %), especially at the third codon position (GC3) of protein-coding genes. Thus, C. felis has a different codon usage, which increases the use of less energy costly amino acids (Gly and Ala) encoded by GC-rich codons. While the tRNA usage is conserved among Cryptosporidium species, consistent with its higher GC content, C. felis uses a unique tRNA for GTG for valine instead of GTA in other Cryptosporidium species. Both mutational pressures and natural selection are associated with the evolution of the codon usage in Cryptosporidium spp., while natural selection seems to drive the codon usage in C. felis. Other unique features of the C. felis genome include the loss of the entire traditional and alternative electron transport systems and several invasion-related proteins. Thus, the preference for the use of some less energy costly amino acids in C. felis may lead to a more harmonious parasite–host interaction, and the strengthened host-adaptation is reflected by the further reductive evolution of metabolism and host invasion-related proteins.

Metabolic energy conservation for fermentative product formation.

SummaryMicrobial production of bulk chemicals and biofuels from carbohydrates competes with low‐cost fossil‐based production. To limit production costs, high titres, productivities and especially high yields are required. This necessitates metabolic networks involved in product formation to be redox‐neutral and conserve metabolic energy to sustain growth and maintenance. Here, we review the mechanisms available to conserve energy and to prevent unnecessary energy expenditure. First, an overview of ATP production in existing sugar‐based fermentation processes is presented. Substrate‐level phosphorylation (SLP) and the involved kinase reactions are described. Based on the thermodynamics of these reactions, we explore whether other kinase‐catalysed reactions can be applied for SLP. Generation of ion‐motive force is another means to conserve metabolic energy. We provide examples how its generation is supported by carbon‐carbon double bond reduction, decarboxylation and electron transfer between redox cofactors. In a wider perspective, the relationship between redox potential and energy conservation is discussed. We describe how the energy input required for coenzyme A (CoA) and CO2 binding can be reduced by applying CoA‐transferases and transcarboxylases. The transport of sugars and fermentation products may require metabolic energy input, but alternative transport systems can be used to minimize this. Finally, we show that energy contained in glycosidic bonds and the phosphate‐phosphate bond of pyrophosphate can be conserved. This review can be used as a reference to design energetically efficient microbial cell factories and enhance product yield.

Barriers and facilitators to social participation after driving cessation among older adults: A cohort study.

Driving cessation is a challenging transition for older drivers. It is indeed often associated with reduced mobility, loss of autonomy and poor quality of life, as in individuals with acquired disabilities. We examined factors that inhibit or facilitate out-of-home occupations after driving cessation (shopping, visiting/helping friends/family, leisure, and associative activities) in older adults, with particular focus on the role of anticipation. This longitudinal study was conducted with the SAFE MOVE cohort (n=1014 drivers aged≥70 years). Socio-demographic, health, cognitive, mobility and out-of-home occupations data were collected at home at baseline and by a postal questionnaire at 2-year follow-up. In total, 48 (5%) participants stopped driving between baseline and follow-up, at a mean age of 81.8 years; 71% of drivers who stopped reported that driving cessation affected their out-of-home occupations. Participation in social occupations started to decline before driving cessation. Retired drivers were older, had poorer health, poorer cognitive abilities, drove less at baseline but used more public transportation than active drivers. As compared with participants who did not consider driving cessation at baseline, those who did were more likely to expect a better quality of life in the event of driving cessation and to use public transportation at baseline and follow-up despite their older age and poorer health. Some factors associated with reduced social participation and driving cessation are inevitable, such as health status. However, other factors may facilitate maintenance of social participation, including anticipation of driving cessation and mobility habits. Our findings highlight the need for appropriate interventions that are widely available to older drivers before driving cessation occurs and for public policy actions facilitating alternative transport systems.

A Combination of PROMETHEE and Goal Programming Methods for the Evaluation of Water Airport Connections

Greece is a country with a unique morphology. Having an extensive coastline and thousands of islands, the rise of the touristic industry is significant. The recent economic crisis as well as the increased infrastructure construction costs on the islands, created the urge to develop alternative and innovative transport systems. The seaplane, a modern, eco-friendly mode, allows effortless and quick connection between ports and airports from all over the country and distant coastal areas and islands. Seaplanes can be used by both residents and visitors or/and carry shipments. The research presented herein focuses on the development of a methodological framework for the evaluation of different areas for water aerodrome allocation, initially among different islands. Multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA) was selected among the large spectrum of existing evaluation methods, because it was considered to be the most suitable approach as it gives the opportunity to use diverse criteria, both quantitative and qualitative. Significant criteria include the distance between the origin waterdrome location and protected natural areas, wave and wind data of each area, the operational cost of seaplanes and the number of passenger arrivals and departures. Weights are accorded to the criteria based on experts' opinion and applying goal programming approach. The evaluation of the alternatives takes place with the aid of the PROMETHEE method. The suggested approach is then implemented through a case study; the investigation of the potential connection of Thessaloniki, the second-largest city in Greece and a transportation hub for the southeastern Europe and the Balkans, with the Cyclades islands, in South Aegean Region.

DEVELOPMENT OF AN ALTERNATIVE TYPE OF URBAN TRANSPORT WITH A GENERAL INCREASE IN THE SECURITY LEVEL OF PASSENGERS

Purpose. The goal is to develop the foundations of an alternative mode of transport for the conditions of the city, which will allow directing passenger flows, unloading specific areas of the city and increasing safety. Such an alternative mode of transport is the passenger cableway, which occupies a leading place in the modern world in providing transport, technological and entertainment functions in urban infrastructures. Methodology. To achieve this goal, an analysis of passenger safety requirements was carried out taking into account the characteristics of the cableway. The use of computer modeling to solve the routing problem of an alternative mode of transport is proposed. Using it, you can perform computer modeling of the profile of the relief, determine the elevation and slope of the path. Findings. For the city of Dnpiro, the workload of the population’s movement routes during peak hours was analyzed, the place of study was selected and calculated data were obtained for it using analytical data. A map has been compiled for further information processing. It is proved that in a metropolis, the cable car is a worthy and quite serious competitor to other types of public transport. Since the transport system should be used as efficiently as possible, the use of a passenger cableway is advisable and requires the implementation of the previous set of theoretical and experimental studies involving specialists from various fields. Originality. Originality lies in solving the further task of regulating and optimizing the passenger flow of the city, adjusted by the presence of a new alternative transport system. Practical value. It was confirmed that the priority for the development of society should be traffic safety, reducing the negative impact of transport on humans and the environment. The data obtained show that the use of passenger cableway as an alternative mode of transport is relevant for solving a number of transport issues in the metropolis.

Desarrollo Orientado al Transporte Sostenible (DOTS). Una prospectiva para Colombia

De la relación territorio-transporte surge el concepto de Desarrollo Orientado al Transporte (DOT) como un modelo de planeación urbana y territorial en torno a los sistemas de transporte. El presente trabajo tiene por objeto formular las estrategias de un Desarrollo Orientado al Transporte Sostenible (DOTS) para Colombia. La metodología toma como punto de partida la valoración de las políticas públicas con relación a los sistemas de transporte urbano alternativo en el país y utiliza como base los postulados internacionales para el establecimiento de las áreas en las que debe desplegarse el DOTS. Los resultados plantean como áreas estratégicas a la política pública, el territorio y el ambiente, la movilidad y la accesibilidad urbanas, el urbanismo, la economía y la sociedad. Se concluye que la capacidad de transformación urbana que posee el transporte trasciende a la planeación e implementación del DOTS, para lo cual se requiere de políticas públicas integrales.

The Role of Culture in Urban Travel Patterns: Quantitative Analyses of Urban Areas Based on Hofstede’s Culture Dimensions

Introduction—culture is an interpretation code of societies, which may explain common preferences in a place. Prediction of alternative transport systems, which could be adopted in a city at peace can help urban transport planners and policy makers adjust urban environments in a more sustainable manner. This paper attempts to investigate the role of Hofstede’s culture dimensions (HCD) on urban travel patterns in 87 urban areas and 41 countries. Analysis—this is the first, systematic analysis investigating the effect of culture on urban travel patterns with open source data from different urban areas around the world. The relationship between HCD and some urban travel patterns such as mode choices (individual transportation and public transportation), car ownership, and infrastructure accessibility (road infrastructure per capita) was demonstrated. In addition, the relationship between culture and some demographic indicators (population density and GDP per capita) closely associated with travel choices are checked. The relations between indicators were identified through correlations and regression models, and calibrated to quantify the relation between indicators. Results and Conclusions—good correlation values between Hofstede’s fundamental culture dimension: individualism/collectivism (IND/COL) and urban travel patterns were demonstrated with a reasonably good fit. The analysis showed that countries with higher individualism build more individualistic transport-related environments, which in turn result in more driving. On the other hand, collective nations tend to use more public transportation. There is significant evidence that, in the case of nations, an increase in tree culture dimensions: collectivism, uncertainty, and masculinity, results in greater usage of public transport.

Identification and Unusual Properties of the Master Regulator FNR in the Extreme Acidophile Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans.

The ability to conserve energy in the presence or absence of oxygen provides a metabolic versatility that confers an advantage in natural ecosystems. The switch between alternative electron transport systems is controlled by the fumarate nitrate reduction transcription factor (FNR) that senses oxygen via an oxygen-sensitive [4Fe-4S]2+ iron-sulfur cluster. Under O2 limiting conditions, FNR plays a key role in allowing bacteria to transition from aerobic to anaerobic lifestyles. This is thought to occur via transcriptional activation of genes involved in anaerobic respiratory pathways and by repression of genes involved in aerobic energy production. The Proteobacterium Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans is a model species for extremely acidophilic microorganisms that are capable of aerobic and anaerobic growth on elemental sulfur coupled to oxygen and ferric iron reduction, respectively. In this study, an FNR-like protein (FNRAF) was discovered in At. ferrooxidans that exhibits a primary amino acid sequence and major motifs and domains characteristic of the FNR family of proteins, including an effector binding domain with at least three of the four cysteines known to coordinate an [4Fe-4S]2+ center, a dimerization domain, and a DNA binding domain. Western blotting with antibodies against Escherichia coli FNR (FNREC) recognized FNRAF. FNRAF was able to drive expression from the FNR-responsive E. coli promoter PnarG, suggesting that it is functionally active as an FNR-like protein. Upon air exposure, FNRAF demonstrated an unusual lack of sensitivity to oxygen compared to the archetypal FNREC. Comparison of the primary amino acid sequence of FNRAF with that of other natural and mutated FNRs, including FNREC, coupled with an analysis of the predicted tertiary structure of FNRAF using the crystal structure of the related FNR from Aliivibrio fisheri as a template revealed a number of amino acid changes that could potentially stabilize FNRAF in the presence of oxygen. These include a truncated N terminus and amino acid changes both around the putative Fe-S cluster coordinating cysteines and also in the dimer interface. Increased O2 stability could allow At. ferrooxidans to survive in environments with fluctuating O2 concentrations, providing an evolutionary advantage in natural, and engineered environments where oxygen gradients shape the bacterial community.

Comparative Genomics of Thiohalobacter thiocyanaticus HRh1T and Guyparkeria sp. SCN-R1, Halophilic Chemolithoautotrophic Sulfur-Oxidizing Gammaproteobacteria Capable of Using Thiocyanate as Energy Source.

The genomes of Thiohalobacter thiocyanaticus and Guyparkeria (formerly known as Halothiobacillus) sp. SCN-R1, two gammaproteobacterial halophilic sulfur-oxidizing bacteria (SOB) capable of thiocyanate oxidation via the “cyanate pathway”, have been analyzed with a particular focus on their thiocyanate-oxidizing potential and sulfur oxidation pathways. Both genomes encode homologs of the enzyme thiocyanate dehydrogenase (TcDH) that oxidizes thiocyanate via the “cyanate pathway” in members of the haloalkaliphilic SOB of the genus Thioalkalivibrio. However, despite the presence of conservative motives indicative of TcDH, the putative TcDH of the halophilic SOB have a low overall amino acid similarity to the Thioalkalivibrio enzyme, and also the surrounding genes in the TcDH locus were different. In particular, an alternative copper transport system Cus is present instead of Cop and a putative zero-valent sulfur acceptor protein gene appears just before TcDH. Moreover, in contrast to the thiocyanate-oxidizing Thioalkalivibrio species, both genomes of the halophilic SOB contained a gene encoding the enzyme cyanate hydratase. The sulfur-oxidizing pathway in the genome of Thiohalobacter includes a Fcc type of sulfide dehydrogenase, a rDsr complex/AprAB/Sat for oxidation of zero-valent sulfur to sulfate, and an incomplete Sox pathway, lacking SoxCD. The sulfur oxidation pathway reconstructed from the genome of Guyparkeria sp. SCN-R1 was more similar to that of members of the Thiomicrospira-Hydrogenovibrio group, including a Fcc type of sulfide dehydrogenase and a complete Sox complex. One of the outstanding properties of Thiohalobacter is the presence of a Na+-dependent ATP synthase, which is rarely found in aerobic Prokaryotes.Overall, the results showed that, despite an obvious difference in the general sulfur-oxidation pathways, halophilic and haloalkaliphilic SOB belonging to different genera within the Gammaproteobacteria developed a similar unique thiocyanate-degrading mechanism based on the direct oxidative attack on the sulfane atom of thiocyanate.

Assessing India’s Engagements in the INSTC and Analysing its Implications on India’s Commercial and Strategic Interests

The INSTC formalised by India, Iran and Russia at the start of the new millennium to develope an alternative transport system linking India with Central Asia and Eurasia floundered for long due to scepticism and neglect by its member states. However, the withdrawal of the UN sanctions against Iran, the steady expansion of the Chinese influence in the region through the OBOR, and the urgent requirement of the land-locked Central Asian countries to gain maritime access offer new incentives for the member states to reinvigorate the project. This article explores the commercial and the strategic implications of the INSTC for India in the present context. .

An alternative water transport system in land plants.

The evolution of vascular tissue is a key innovation enabling plants to inhabit terrestrial environments. Here, we demonstrate extra-vascular water transport in a giant, prop-rooted monocot from Lord Howe Island. Pandanus forsteri (Pandanaceae) produces gutter-like leaves that capture rainwater, which is then couriered along a network of channels to the tips of aerial roots, where it is stored by absorptive tissue. This passive mechanism of water acquisition, transport and storage is critical to the growth of aerial prop roots that cannot yet attain water via vascular conduction. This species therefore sheds light on the elaborate means by which plants have evolved to attain water.

Tram development and urban transport integration in Chinese cities: A case study of Suzhou

This paper explores a new phenomenon of tram development in Chinese cities where tram is used as an alternative transport system to drive urban development. The Suzhou National High-tech District tram was investigated as a case study. Two key findings are highlighted. Firstly, the new tramway was routed along the “path of least resistance” – avoiding dense urban areas, to reduce conflict with cars. Secondly, regarding urban transport integration, four perspectives were evaluated, namely planning and design, service operation, transport governance and user experience. Findings show insufficient integration in the following aspects, namely tram and bus routes and services, fares on multi-modal journeys, tram station distribution, service intervals, and luggage auxiliary support. The paper argues there is a need for a critical review of the role of tram and for context-based innovative policy reform and governance that could possibly facilitate a successful introduction and integration of tram into a city.