Alternative Water Supply Sources Research Articles

Hospital design and planning in the line of foresight of health needs

Abstract The health needs of the population are increasingly difficult to plan and predict. Technological progress, artificial intelligence, new medicines, but also ecological disasters, humanitarian crises, energy crisis and other challenges (as a Covid 19 pandemic) represent the image of our time. New design of hospitals should be able to respond to the challenges of the future: comprehensive provision of health services taking into account the patient’s needs, working conditions taking into account the hospital staff, energy efficiency and construction in accordance with high standards and reduction of CO2 emissions (green hospitals), to ensure alternative sources of electricity and water supply bearing in mind potential emergencies. The big challenge of long-term construction in which advanced technologies and new procedures cannot simply fit into a rigid building structure that is several decades old (example Serbia), so it is necessary to apply precise planning and efficient and high-quality construction in the next generation hospitals, taking into account current modern equipment and that which will appear in the future. Designing hospitals involves anticipating future healthcare challenges, technological advancements, demographic shifts, and changes in patient expectations. Hospitals emphasis on patient-centered design principles, creating environments that prioritize comfort, privacy, and dignity for patients and their families, accessibility and inclusivity, infection control and prevention, sustainability and resilience. Modern hospitals should create collaborative spaces for interdisciplinary teamwork and communication among healthcare providers, research and innovation units, but also community engagement and health promotion activities. Future hospital design requires strong multidisciplinary and cross-sectional cooperation, in which priority is given to architects dedicated to this field and their cooperation with public health and health management experts.

Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Services in Healthcare Facilities in Bayelsa State Nigeria: A Primordial Prevention Strategy for Infectious Disease Control

Lack or inadequate Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Healthcare Facilities (HCF) have been reported severally as having an impact on the transmission of infectious diseases or outbreak of infectious diseases in a healthcare setting. The study conducted in Bayelsa State, South-South of Nigeria was an institutional-based survey that utilized observational checklist and a key-informant interview for data collection. Eleven (11) HCFs comprising of 6(54.5%) primary healthcare facilities and 5(45.5%) secondary healthcare facilities was used for this study. While 8(72.7%) of the HCFs were owned by the Government 3(27.3%) were owned by private individuals and faith-based organizations. All HCF had tap water drawn from borehole as their main source of water supply but only 4(36.4%) have alternative source of water supply. All water supplies were within the HCFs and are less than 500 m from the point of care. Only 1(9.1%) out of 11 HCFs surveyed lacked water at the time of assessment. The type of toilet present in all the HCFs is the flush (water system) and they are all within the HCF premises. Over ninety percent (90.9%) of the HCFs had no toilet designed for those with limited mobility. Wash hand basins for hand hygiene were found to be available in all the HCFs except 1(9.1%). Four (4) (36.4%) of the HCFs had separate bins for the different categories of healthcare wastes while 7(63.6%) had not. There were posters of handwashing and disease prevention in 6(54.5%) of the HCFs. In all the HCFs, there was no WASH monitoring team. The study therefore advocates for WASH monitoring team and focal persons in all the HCFs to ensure adequate provision of WASH services. The study equally recommends further study involving more HCFs and assessing the constraints militating against the provision, use and maintenance of WASH infrastructures at HCFs in Bayelsa State.

Physical quality and antibiotic susceptibility profile of <i>Escherichia coli</i> isolates from roof-harvested rainwater: A microcosm study

Owing to the inadequate supply of potable water in rural settlements in developing countries, roof-harvested rainwater (RHRW) has been favoured as an alternative source of water supply. The present study investigated the physical characteristics and microbial quality of 10 RHRW samples collected from storage tanks in Ikwo community of Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Triplicate water sampling was performed over a 3-month sampling regime. Onsite determination of odour, colour, pH and temperature, and isolation and enumeration of Escherichia coli were done using standard procedures. The identity of the isolates was confirmed using molecular techniques, and the susceptibility of the isolates to 11 antibiotics was determined following the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion assay. Multiple antibiotic resistance phenotypes and indices (MARPs and MARI) were equally determined. Our findings revealed that the RHRWs had unobjectionable odour and were colourless. Across the 3-month o sampling, the pH ranged from 6.9 to 7.8 while the temperature was between 24 °C and 29 C. While E. coli was absent in samples E (September), H (August and October) and J (August, September, and October), the highest E. coli count in August, September, and October was 37, 32, and 38 cfu/100 mL, respectively. The antibiotic susceptibility test on 40 E. coli isolates showed high resistance to ampicillin (100%), aztreonam (98%), cefotetan (97%), nitrofurantoin (90%), imipenem (83%), streptomycin (72%), and ertapenem (69%). Interestingly, the ighest MARP, 11 (AK/S/ETP/IMI/OFX/NOR/AMP/CTT/ATM/F/TE) (sample B), and the least, 4 (IMI/AMP/CTT/ATM) were recorded in samples B and D, respectively in September. MARI was from 0.42 to 1.00. The physical parameters conform with WHO standards, on the other hand, detection of E. coli poses risks of water-borne illness(es) and transmission of antimicrobial resistance. Hence stringent measures including proper treatment, sanitation and hygiene are advocated to safeguard the health of dwellers who depend on this water source for daily life activities.

The Capability of Rainwater Harvesting as an Alternative Water Supply

This Rainwater Harvesting System (RWH) is considered the Best Management Practice (BMP) which is being implemented in Malaysia. This system is not only intended to slow down the flow of runoff the surface is even used as a free and safe alternative source of water supply. However, it is mentioned that the system is not viable and impractical considering the construction and maintenance costs that had to be borne by the users of the system. However, several studies inside and outside the country show the Return on Capital (ROC) factor for this system only in a short period, i.e., between two and three years. This article aims to identify the capability of the experimental study site of Rabbitland Jengka Pahang, Malaysia in providing the most suitable or potential location to apply the RWH system. Moreover, it predicts the capability of the RWH system as well as the ROC ability of the system. Results indicate that the level of the system’s reliability is high and the ROC for the investment of the system takes only 36 months to recover the cost of the investment. The National Water Quality Standards (NWQS) for Malaysia proved that RWH and groundwater used are in class 3 which is suitable for livestock drinking, and external domestic uses, and needs extensive treatment for drinking purposes.

ЗАБЕЗПЕЧЕННЯ СТАЛОГО РОЗВИТКУ НА БАЗІ АНАЛІЗУ ТА ОЦІНКИ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИК ШАХТНИХ ВОД ЯК ДЖЕРЕЛ ВОДОПОСТАЧАННЯ ТА ОТРИМАННЯ ЦІННИХ РЕЧОВИН З ВІДХОДІВ ОПРІСНЕННЯ

Purpose. Rationale for the integrated use of the resource potential of coal-mining enterprises, which is aimed at obtaining technical and drinking water for their own production needs, local population and obtaining valuable substances from desalination waste. Methodology. Analysis of world experience, information about aquifer complexes in the Western Donbas mines, conducting chemical analyses of mine waters and salt mixtures obtained after using reverse osmosis products. Results. Based on the accumulated world experience in desalination of highly mineralized waters, it can be concluded that it is possible to effectively implement this experience at mining enterprises. Description of aquifer complexes has been given in detail using the example of the Zakhidno-Donbaska Mine of PJSC “DTEK Pavlohradvuhillia”, chemical analyses of water before and after discharge into settling ponds. A rational technological scheme for desalination, volumes of purified water obtained for drinking and technical water supply, as well as the quantitative and qualitative composition of the dry residue components of mine water desalination waste, and recommendations on possible use of products on the market have been determined. Scientific novelty. Analytical and laboratory studies have been conducted to determine the component composition of mine water desalination waste from Western Donbas coal-mining enterprises. It has been determined that the resulting salt product is a mixture of pure salts and valuable microcomponents, and the resulting distillate is fuel for the operation of hydrogen electrolyzers, which creates prerequisites for modern “green” hydrogen energy infrastructure. Practical significance. The qualitative and quantitative mine water parameters on complex use as an alternative source of water supply and obtaining related reverse osmosis products have been analyzed. The road services propose the consumption of the resulting salt products by municipal enterprises, and the dry distillation residue – to prevent dust. This approach allows solving not only the problem of desalination waste utilization, but also applying the separated valuable substances in the industrial market of food, medical, cosmetic, paint and varnish, chemical, as well as building materials, plastics and polymers production industries. Keywords: mine water, waste recycling, mineral resource, coal-mining enterprises.

Analysis of the potential of the city of Pokrovsk for the accumulation and use of atmospheric precipitation

The problem of water shortage in the city of Pokrovsk, Donetsk region, requires the search for alternative sources of water supply, especially for the needs of industry and agriculture. Atmospheric precipitation is considered as an alternative source. However, at the stage of choosing and developing a method of managing rainwater from an urbanized area and implementing technical means for its accumulation, storage, and use, it is important to assess the quantitative indicators of stormwater runoff. Research is aimed at substantiating the possibility of using atmospheric precipitation as an auxiliary source of water supply for industrial-communal, domestic, and agricultural needs based on statistical determination of the dynamics of precipitation on the territory of the city of Pokrovsk. Changes in rainwater runoff parameters were determined based on the analysis of the meteorological data archive for the period 1985–2022.The study found that the city of Pokrovsk has the potential for wastewater accumulation. The city has a tendency to increase the frequency of high-intensity storms with a 34.89% increase in the average height of the precipitation layer for one abnormal rainy day. Over the period 2004–2022, the average annual and annual rainfall per rainy day increased slightly by 0.56% and 6.23%, respectively, compared to the same period in the previous year (1985–2003), while the average number of rainy days per year decreased by 5.25%.The dynamics of annual volumes of surface wastewater indicates the need to improve the city's rainwater accumulation system, which should provide a 35% increase in the current flow rate of abnormal rainfall and eliminate the risk of flooding. To do this, the storage capacity should be increased by deepening the city pond "Nulyovka" and the ridge located downstream. It is expedient for private households to create individual sediment accumulators.

Bacteriological Analysis of Well Water Obtained from Onueke Metropolis, Ezza South Local Government Arae, Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Many households in Nigeria are dependent on alternative sources of water supply and are exposed to preventable water-borne diseases. This study was carried out to examine the bacterial quality of well water obtained from Onueke metropolis in Ebonyi State. The physicochemical parameters of water samples collected from 25 closed and 25 opened wells were analyzed following standard procedures while bacteriological quality of the water samples including coliform count and bacterial isolate identification were determined using serial dilution and multiple fermentation techniques. Results of the physiochemical parameters showed that pH, Electrical Conductivity, Total Hardness, Turbidity and nitrite were within the WHO standard limit for drinking water. The bacterial count ranged from 0.8 – 3.1 x 104 CFU /100ml involving E. coli (25%), Shigella spp (12.5%), Citrobacter spp (4.2%), Klebsiella spp (29.2%), Enterobacter spp (12.5%) and Salmonella spp (16.7%) as the dominant isolates and exceeded the WHO guidelines limit of 0 cfu/100ml for drinking water. Generally, the uncovered wells were more highly contaminated with bacteria pathogens than the covered wells. All samples were above the most probable number (MPN) per 100 ml permissible limit of WHO guidelines for untreated drinking water. In conclusion sampled well water from Onueke metropolis contained bacterial contaminants making the water not safe for drinking devoid of any further water treatment process.

Quality of Groundwater Distributed by Collective Alternative Solution in Rural Areas Interferes with Weather Variables

Theoretical benchmark: The seasonal and spatial variability of a spring can be monitored by physical, chemical and microbiological parameters, to ensure access to the population of drinking water, managed in a safe manner, since alternative and unsafe sources of water supply, and sometimes without treatment, pose risk to human health. Method: Quantitative, retrospective study of water samples collected monthly by monitoring the quality of water for human consumption in rural and urban areas from collective supply from January 2018 to December 2019. Results and conclusion: Precipitation interfered with all water quality indicators except free residual chlorine; and temperature interfered with turbidity, free residual chlorine, and fluoride. There was a correlation between fluoride and temperature; total coliforms and free residual chlorine, which suggests the possibility of antimicrobial action. Cross-sectoral actions to improve the quality of water supplied in rural areas are therefore proposed, through the adoption of continuous disinfection of all water sources. Research Implications: Presents important indicators on the quality of water consumed by the population, directly influencing the health of consumers. Originality/value: Research carried out in the rural area in Brazil is controversial about the interference of climatic factors in the quality of the distributed water. In view of the need to provide access to the population of drinking water, subject to safe and efficient treatments, without risks to human health, and for this purpose this study assesses the interference of climatic factors in the quality of water.

PETRIFYING SPRINGS OF EASTERN VICINITY OF LVIV CITY AS VALUED OBJECTS OF LIVING AND INANIMATE NATURE

An assessment of the condition of the petrifying springs in the eastern vicinity of Lviv City as objects of living and non-living nature and their nature conservation value was carried out. The investigated travertine springs are confined to the sources of small rivers associated with water-erosive landscape complexes. Travertine deposits in the studied areas are mostly related to groundwater outputs in the sides of deep, branched V- or U-shaped, usually wooded ravines, which have the local name "debra". Springs are wedging out in sites of contact between Neogene limestones and waterproof Сretaceous marls and often produce powerful deposits of travertines (calcareous tufa). These sources are forming the headwaters of small rivers in the region. Considering the long period of management of the region and the high rate of urbanization, at the modern stage, the complex of natural factors is often joined by anthropogenic influence, which in one way or another affects the natural processes of tufa accumulation. As our research has shown, all the surveyed streams have been anthropogenically altered in one way or another. Obviously, the main reason for this is the location of the streams in the forest park zone of Lviv with intensive visits by vacationers and the close proximity to human habitation. Only 15 springs (27.8%) retain their natural character and the rest are significantly transformed. Among the last 20 sources (37.0%) suffer minor changes due to the expansion of sources and straightening or deepening of their channels; such ones can be defined as semi-natural. Today, more than a third of springs (19 / 35.2%) are intensively managed and have completely lost their natural features, mainly due to capping and the construction of reservoirs. Despite the significant transformation, many of such sources can have health (bathing), economic (alternative sources of water supply), sacred ("holy water"), historical (named after famous personalities), aesthetic (originally designed) and scientific and educational (limestone exposure and travertine) values. The most interesting and outstanding of them need to be given the conservation status of the Nature Reserve Fund. Key words: petrifying springs; travertine (calcareous tufa); rare habitats; natural monuments.

Resilient and Sustainable Housing Models against Climate Change: A Review

Most of the world’s population resides in urban areas, and it is expected that this will continue to be the case in the future. These urban areas face enormous challenges such as climate change, economic instability and inequality. Housing is considered a basic unit comprising cities, and, as such, this study contextualized the concepts of urban resilience and sustainability against climate change such that housing models that respond to these concepts could be identified. As a result of an extensive literature review, three resilient housing models and four sustainable housing models are presented and discussed with a focus on the main characteristics necessary for meeting urban resilience and sustainability against climate change. When analyzing the housing models considered resilient, the need to establish housing on safe land stood out and concrete was a common building material among these housing models. In addition, the use of alternative sources of water and energy supply was prioritized. On the other hand, sustainable housing models were developed by local entities and certified by various initiatives. In addition, these models account for the climatic specifications of their location, energy and water efficiency, and quality of the indoor environment, and promote the use of local materials and resources. The use of durable materials was considered a requirement for both resilience and sustainability. The results of this study are a contribution to the process of strengthening housing against the challenge posed by climate change in a timely and adequate manner considering both urban resilience and sustainability aspects.

Rainwater Harvesting as Sustainable Solution to Cope with Drinking Water Scarcity and Urban Flooding: A Case Study of Public Institutions in Lahore, Pakistan

Pakistan is currently facing physical and economic water scarcity issues, which have been further complicated by the rapid increase in its population and climate change. In affected areas, many methods are being used to tackle this problem, among which rainwater harvesting (RWH) provides the best alternative source of domestic water supply. In rainwater harvesting, a mechanism is designed to effectively collect surface runoff during rainfall events from residential rooftops. It has also been found that rainwater has great potential as a source of water supply in residential areas of major cities, such as Lahore, which is the focus of our study. This research paper examines rainwater harvesting as a sustainable solution to address the challenges of drinking water scarcity and urban flooding. The study discusses the benefits of rainwater harvesting, including reducing reliance on municipal water sources, improving water quality, and mitigating the impact of urban flooding. Additionally, the paper explores the use of filtered water points in conjunction with rainwater harvesting systems to provide clean drinking water to communities. The research draws on case studies from various regions to illustrate the effectiveness of rainwater harvesting as a sustainable solution to water scarcity and urban flooding. Ultimately, the study concludes that rainwater harvesting, when coupled with filtered water points, can offer an effective and sustainable solution to address drinking water scarcity and urban flooding.

Pathways to water resilient South African cities – from mono-functional to multi-functional stormwater infrastructure

In light of rapid population growth and climate-change pressures on water resources, there is an urgent need in many African cities to shift to more resilient, decentralised, nature-based approaches. In response, the City of Cape Town's Water Strategy document proposes various alternative water supply sources. One is Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) using the Cape Flats Aquifer (CFA). Overlying the CFA are a significant number of stormwater ponds that were originally designed solely to prevent flooding. These ponds could be retrofitted to infiltrate stormwater run-off, recharging the aquifer and serving a water treatment function using nature-based approaches. Many of these mono-functional ponds are in neighbourhoods that are socio-economically disadvantaged through former apartheid spatial planning. These ponds are frequently litter-filled, used for dumping rubble and, on occasion, occupied with informal housing. It is in this context that the conversion of engineered single-purpose stormwater ponds into multi-functional space is proposed using a demonstration site in Mitchells Plain, Cape Town. The ‘Pathways to water resilient South African cities (PaWS)’ project is a collaboration between the Future Water Institute at the University of Cape Town (UCT) and University of Copenhagen (UCPH), funded through DANIDA. This research is revealing how maximum benefit could be derived from these water management systems by adopting low-cost, easy to install blue-green interventions that rely on nature-based approaches. The findings from the research have relevance across Southern Africa where several large cities have existing stormwater ponds designed for flood control or as passive open green spaces. It offers valuable strategies for how these single-purpose ponds can be transformed into multifunctional blue-green spaces in ways that build resilience while addressing the environmental injustice that is a legacy of South Africa's ‘green apartheid’.

Attitude, Knowledge, Perception, Behavioural, Cultural and Religious Practices Influencing Transmission of Urogenital Schistosomiasis in Owena, Kajola and Baiken Communities Bordering Owena Reservoir/Dam, Ondo East Local Government Area, Ondo State, Nigeria

Background: Human urogenital schistosomiasis remains an important public health problem in Nigeria, especially in three communities, Owena, Kajola and Baiken bordering Owena Reservoir/Dam, Ondo East Local Government Area, Ondo State, Nigeria. Unfortunately, scientific-based facts about attitude, knowledge, perception, behavioural, cultural and religious practices influencing the transmission of urogenital schistosomiasis are grossly scanty and without which sustainable control strategies cannot be planned. The aim of the study was to identify the roles played by the aforementioned variables in the transmission of the disease with a view to fashioning out sustainable control strategies of the disease. Materials and Methods: A structured questionnaire was used to collect basic information on personal biodata, perception, health history, etc from the subjects. Data obtained were analyzed using Chi-square test, Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and correlation analysis. Results: Summary of significant associations between knowledge and socio-demographic characteristics of the three communities combined showed the following: gender status (p<0.000), distribution of latrine facilities in the communities (p<0.000), ignorance of how urogenital schistosomiasis is transmitted (p<0.002), self-medication urogenital schistosomiasis treatment (p<0.000), frequency of visits to the reservoir (p<0.001) (see Table I). Further results of this study revealed that participants’ perception, behavioural, cultural, religious practices were not significantly associated with the danger of urogenital schistosomiasis (p<0.110), snails seen around reservoir (p<0.259), reservoir ever visited before (p<0.24), household having toilet facilities (p<0.32), blood passed in urine (p<0.86), treatment ever received for urogenital schistosomiasis infection (p<0.86) (see Table III). Conclusion: The overall findings of this twenty-four-month (August 2013 – July 2015) study showed that people orientations such as attitude, knowledge, perception, behavioural, cultural, religious practices about the causal factors, transmission cycles, negative impacts of urogenital schistosomiasis are grossly scanty and these could pose a threat to sound intervention strategies of the control of the disease. Control strategies should involve mass sensitization focused on health education, and on transmission to emphasise the role commonly played by water contact activities. Frequency of occurrence of snails’ host and urination habits should be looked into, as well. Enlightening teachers, parents to control the water contact behaviour of their wards especially the age group 5-15 years which accounts for 52% of total index of exposure. Adequate provision of modern alternative sources of water supply (e.g. pipe-borne water) with a view to reducing the population index of exposure, should be encouraged.

An Alternative Source of Water Supply: Design and Construction of Rainwater Harvesting System for Domestic Use in Ovia-North East Local Government Area, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria

Demand for freshwater is on the increase due mainly to population growth and urbanisation. Many of the water systems that keep ecosystems thriving and feed a growing human population have become stressed. Rivers, lakes and aquifers are drying up or becoming too polluted to use. Hence, there is need for alternative water supply sources. With this in mind, there has been a growing attention on the potentials of rainwater harvesting as an alternative source of water supply. In this study, rainwater harvesting (RWH) system was designed for a 5-membered household in Ovia-North East LGA of Benin City, Nigeria. However, a prototype of the RWH system (mini system) was constructed to ascertain its suitability. It consist of a corrugated metal (zinc) sheet catchment of 6m 2 , a collection system made of PVC pipes and a filter with granular activated carbon and fine sand and two locally available plastic storage drums having capacity of 100L each. Rainwater samples were collected from the storage drums and analysed for their suitability in domestic purposes. These samples were analysed for thirteen parameters, namely; pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Temperature, Turbidity, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Chloride (Cl), Ammonium Nitrogen (NH 4 N), Nitrite (NO 2 - ), Nitrate (NO 3 - ), Iron (Fe), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu) and Coliforms Count (Col.) using standard methods. Results revealed that with a roof area of 40m 2 , 75m 3 reservoirs or tanks capacity will be required for dry period. It was observed that all parameters analysed were within acceptable limits for drinking water quality except for coliform bacteria. Although minimum level of coliform bacteria was observed, however pure water should be free from all kinds of coliforms, thus it is recommended that the addition of a disinfectant to the harvested rainwater is required to further improve it quality for domestic use. Also proper maintenance of the catchment area and storage containers could eliminate the presence of coliform bacteria and make rainwater safe for domestic purposes. This study has revealed that the harvested rainwater is of good quality and that the amount of rainwater to be stored with a 75m 3 reservoirs or tanks will be more than enough for a 5-membered household to meet its domestic use throughout the whole dry periods of the year. Hence, RWH can serve as an alternative and viable source of water supply. Keywords: Catchment Area, Collection System, Runoff coefficient, Rainwater Harvesting, Rainfall, Water Demand, Water Supply. DOI: 10.7176/CER/14-7-01 Publication date: November 30 th 2022

Comparative Economic and Life Cycle Analysis of Future Water Supply Mix Scenarios for Hong Kong – A Water Scarce City

Increasing urbanization and changes in climate have placed increasing stress on urban water supply systems. Policy makers have increasingly adopted alternative water supply sources, such as desalination and water reclamation to meet this challenge, however these technologies may increase the negative environmental impacts of the water supply system. These alternative sources are energy intensive, and more expensive to produce, which raises questions about their sustainability. In this study, a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and a economic portfolio choice model were used to determine the impacts of Hong Kong's long term water policy. The results of our study show that the current water policy will increase the carbon emissions of producing 1 m3 of freshwater by 11% to 1.65 kg CO2-Eq due to the addition of desalination. However, a fit-for-purpose water policy approach only increases emission by 4%, to 1.54 kg CO2-Eq, by instead relying on water reclamation to offset freshwater consumption. Impacts from increased energy consumption were mitigated by improved wastewater treatment, which reduced CH4 emissions. Although, ozone layer impacts increased due to higher NOx and N2O emissions, highlighting the need to consider emissions from wastewater treatment processes when evaluating water reclamation processes. Impacts to water prices were also minimized when reclaimed water was chosen over desalination, due to its lower unit production cost. By considering both cost and environmental impacts of such system level changes, decision makers can more accurately evaluate different water supply approaches for data-driven policymaking.

Assessing the Potential for Rainwater Harvesting Use in a Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation Region in the South of Brazil

Sustainability in intensive animal production is directly linked to water management. The increasing pressure on water resources and the occurrence of increasingly frequent and severe droughts makes it harder to meet the demand for animal husbandry in rural properties and highlights the importance of rational water use and the search for alternative sources of water supply. In the midwest region of Santa Catarina state, south of Brazil, the use of cisterns to store rainwater collected from the roofs of houses that confine animals is an alternative already widely used and encouraged to minimize water scarcity. Studies that deal with the potential for rainwater use in livestock production are still scarce; however, available information provides a concrete basis for further technical and economic feasibility studies. The present study aimed to evaluate, based on local precipitation and available harvesting areas, the potential of the use of rainwater to supply the water demand (r, %) and the water-saving potential (R, m3/year) in swine and poultry Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) in Jacutinga river basin and contiguous sub-basin municipalities, a region with great national importance in this activity. As a result, potential r values of 100% to supply water demand in the poultry sector and between 32.7% and 68.3% in the different production stages of the swine sector were obtained. The potential R value in the study area represented 5.2 million m3 per year. Such results reveal the high potential of rainwater harvesting systems not only for minimizing impacts of drought periods but also as an abundant source of water for supplying the husbandry water demand of rural farms, ensuring water security, and serving as a tool for managing local water resources.

Potable Water Supply Deficiency in Yaounde (Centre Cameroon): Challenges and Coping Strategies of the Inhabitants

In most cities in developing countries, dwellers continue facing difficulties in adequately accessing potable water in sufficient quantity for their daily needs. These difficulties are perceived by households each time they fetch drinking water or try to get access to potable water for other household activities. This study aims to assess the problem of potable water supply in the Yaounde III Subdivisions’ neighbourhoods and the coping strategies developed by citizens to meet their needs. To achieve this objective, 300 households were selected and investigated based on purposive and systematic random sampling, particularly in the most densely populated neighbourhoods. We proceeded by identifying the different water supply sources of households for their various needs, and assessing the difficulties encountered in getting water and how they overcome them. Results reveal that in Yaounde III Subdivision only 34.33% of the households are supplied by the Cameroon Water Utilities Corporation (CAMWATER), while 65.67% rely on alternative water supply sources (wells, drillings and springs) without any pre-treatment. Among those connected to CAMWATER network, 46.6% do not have a regular water flow. Results also revealed that water sources were located at reasonable distances (less than 1 kilometre) and that 70% of households take less than 30 minutes to fetch water. Failure in water supply is mainly caused by the insufficient pumping capacity of the existing potable water treatment plants which lead to rationing and shortages, but also to rapid population growth and city extension not followed by the extension of the potable water distribution network. To fill the gap in water supply, it is imperative for public authorities to quickly achieve the project on water supply from the Sanaga River. Also, CAMWATER should extend its distribution network and improve its maintenance system.

Geospatial Assessment of The Potentials of Rooftop Rainwater Harvest at The Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria

Recent reports reveal water shortage at the Federal University of Technology, Akure, (FUTA), Nigeria, with possibilities to worsen if adequate measures are not taken. This research focuses on the assessment of the potential of an alternative source of water supply the Roof Top Rainwater Harvest (RTRWH) at FUTA. This study goes beyond the determination of the potential volume of RTRWH by proposing a storage plan for the RTRWH based on geospatial analysis. Data collected for the study are rainfall data covering 19 years (2000-2018), High-Resolution Satellite Image (HRSI), Ground Control Point (GCP), attribute data, Landsat 8 and Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) Digital Elevation Model (DEM). The rooftop areas were extracted by processing HRSI using ArcGIS software. The volumes of the RTRWH for each building were computed with the rooftop area, precipitation amount and roof's runoff coefficient of the rooftop material as variables. Suitable locations for siting the storage tanks were proposed based on Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) and geospatial analysis. Result obtained from the study reveals that the total area of rooftop catchment for all buildings considered is 164,246 m2. The study suggests 9 locations suitable for collecting and storing the harvested RTRW. The potential average daily, average monthly and total annual volumes of RTRWH are approximately 607 m3, 18,473 m3 and 221,681 m3 respectively, and thereby could potentially provide ~ 41% of water demand in addition to the existing water supply sources in FUTA. The RTRWH is therefore recommended as an alternative water source at FUTA.

Optimising water resources management by Using Water Evaluation and Planning (WEAP) in the West of Iraq

Iraq has been suffering from decreasing Euphrates discharge due to the construction of dams within upstream countries and the use of surface irrigation systems. The country is facing a problem with meeting the increasing demand for water as a result of population growth and development in the industrial and agricultural sectors. Therefore, a simulation modelling was applied for western Iraq (Ramadi city as a case study) using the Water Evaluation and Planning System (WEAP) for the period 2018–2035. This research follows a four-step approach that involves: (i) evaluating the available water of the Euphrates River under declined water imports caused by the construction of dams in Turkey and Syria, (ii) assessing present and future water demands of the domestic, industrial, and agricultural sectors, (iii) improving water productivity (WP) by means of saving more water, (iv) estimating the economic returns under improved water use. The results showed that Iraq would face a serious problem in the coming years, represented by the limited storage of Haditha Dam, which is considered the strategic water storage site for the central and southern regions of Iraq. The study indicated the necessity of finding alternative sources of water supply by adopting new water management strategies to reduce the water deficit.

WASTEWATER RECLAIMING AND RECYCLING: ESSENCE AND DIRECTIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION

Topicality. The topicality of the research results from the fact that according to the data of the United Nations (UN), 36% of the world's population lives in water-scarce regions, in particular Ukraine is ranked 125th among 179 countries on the indicator of total internal renewable water resources per capita, which states that Ukraine is poorly supplied with freshwater. In recent years, special attention of international communities have been paid to the wastewater reclaiming and recycling as a possible alternative to traditional water supply and solution of water scarcity problem. In the UN World Water Development Report 2017, it is noted the need to use wastewater as a resource since fresh water has become increasingly scarce. Aim and tasks. The purpose of the article is to determine the essence, features and directions for wastewater reclaiming and recycling implementation to ensure sustainable water resources management in Ukraine. Research results. The results indicate that climate change, rapid urbanization and population growth affect the state of water resources and the population's access to fresh water. In order to find ways to overcome the natural water shortage, it was proposed to use alternative sources of water supply, in particular, wastewater reclaiming and recycling. Based on the analysis of national and foreign regulatory legislation, the modern semantic content of the concepts of "wastewater reclaiming" and "wastewater recycling" has been clarified, and a scheme for introducing the wastewater reclaiming and recycling into the water cycle has been developed. Statistical data on providing the population of Ukraine with centralized water supply and drainage systems and the amount of volumes of untreated wastewater discharged into the environment have been analyzed. The analysis was carried out and the main areas of recycling of wastewater reclaiming components were determined. Conclusion. Considering the importance of ensuring sustainable water resources management, the authors of the article determined the place and role in the introduction of wastewater reclaiming and recycling. The study demonstrated that 97% of Ukraine's wastewater is not recycled, and more than a quarter of the discharged wastewater in the Odessa region is discharged without proper treatment, which has extremely detrimental consequences for the environment and human health. The stages of technological processes of centralized water supply and sanitation services are considered and the introduction of wastewater reclaiming into the water use cycle, in particular in the energy, manufacturing, agricultural sectors and for municipal and domestic needs, is proposed. It is argued that the introduction of wastewater reclaiming and recycling contributes to the development of a circular economy and provides certain socio-economic-environmental benefits, including reducing environmental impact, avoiding overexploitation of water resources and increasing water availability in arid regions of Ukraine.