Alternative Income-generating Activities Research Articles

Agro-Pastoral Youth Participation in Livelihood Activities, Development Programs and Interventions in East and West Hararghe Zones of Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia

This study was conducted to identify the status and determinants of male and female youth participation in selected livelihood activities, development programs and interventions in agro-pastoral areas of Oromia regional state, Ethiopia. A cross-sectional research design and mixed methods research approach were employed. A multi-stage random sampling strategy was followed to select four agro-pastoral Woredas (A ‘Woreda’ is an administrative unit equivalent to a District), 12 Kebeles (A ‘Kebele’ is the smallest administrative unit in Ethiopia. A Woreda/District consists of several Kebeles) and 398 youth aged 15–29 years for a face-to-face interview. Data were analysed through descriptive and inferential statistics and an econometric model (Logistic regression) estimation. We found that whereas male youth had better access to land, participation in extension/advisory services and Farmers’ Training Centers (FTCs), agricultural training, and NGOs, female youth had better participation in non-/off-farm livelihood activities and Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP). Our findings indicated that lack of access to financial resources, limited access to land, poor extension and rural advisory services, limited skills development programs and mentorship were key factors affecting youth participation. Other factors include: targeting criteria, discrimination (e.g. on the basis of gender, social structure), cumbersome organizational procedures and requirements, limited availability and capacity of supporting organizations, poor infrastructural developments, mismatch between needs and services provided, conflict, and climate-induced shocks and uncertainties. To overcome these challenges, local and regional governments and their development partners operating in the area should implement a multi-stakeholder, participatory, co-design and development of programs, projects and interventions to enhance collaboration, youth engagement and benefit. Investments in capacity-building and alternative income-generating activities, entrepreneurship education and business skills training are also important.

Economic well-being induced Women's empowerment: Evidence from coastal fishing communities of Bangladesh

Women's empowerment is an important policy agenda that is critical for developing countries like Bangladesh to achieve sustainable development goals (SDGs). The prime objective of this paper was to examine whether community savings groups can truly improve the economic conditions of women which turns into women's empowerment in fishing communities or not. The propensity score matching (PSM) and logistic regression technique were incorporated, and required data were collected from Community Savings Groups (CSG) interventions and non-CSG villages of coastal Bangladesh. Quantitative data were collected from 615 women comprising 306 CSG participants (treatment group) and 309 non-participants (control group). The results affirm CSG group members were economically more solvent and less dependent on borrowed money than non-CSG group members. Improved economic indicators (savings, income and expenditure) of CSG households make the foundation of attaining women's empowerment for the intervened group. The findings revealed that CSG women performed better in various dimensions of leadership capacity than non-CSG women. Econometric analysis confirmed positive impacts of CSG interventions on savings, gross household income, earning from catching fish, alternative income-generating activities (AIGAs), expenditure, and women's empowerment. The initiatives of CSG not only generate economic well-being but also contribute to women's empowerment. Financial access, improved literacy and an enabling environment for the productive engagement of women reduce gender inequality in fishing communities. To sustain the benefits of CSG, establishing institutional linkages (advisory and financial), legality/registration of CSGs from the government authority, and facilitation of alternative IGAs are crucial.

Assessing the impact of charcoal production activities on the Shea Nut tree vegetation cover

Charcoal remains the main energy cooking source for urban dwellers in Uganda. The Shea Nut tree produces quality charcoal which is efficient and locally made. Therefore, it is facing increasing threats from the local communities so as to meet the mushrooming demand. The study analyses the state of the Shea Nut tree, drivers of charcoal production, predict Shea Nut tree vegetation coverage, and establish mechanisms for sustainable utilization and conservation of the Shea Nut trees in Kapelebyong District. Landsat images were classified using likelihood classification in ArcGIS and interviews were conducted whilst geospatial, Stata, and Nvivo tools were used for analysis. The findings reflect a sharp declining trend in the coverage of the shea Nut trees by 2.3% and 6% from 2002-2012 and 2012-2022 respectively. The major drivers include high demand from urban areas, the need for income, and unemployment. As a result, it is predicted that by 2032, the coverage will have reduced to only 713 hectares (7.3%) from 1277 hectares (10.6%) in 2022. Therefore, charcoal production with other land uses has greatly resulted in Shea Nut tree deterioration. The study recommends the use of alternative energy sources, the provision of alternative income-generating activities for the local communities, Government of Uganda through NFA needs to enforce the ways through which Shea Nut trees are managed and utilized in order to minimize illegal cutting.

Overview of Spatial and Economic Valuation for Ensuring Sustainability and Conservation: A Study of Masoala National Park

Masoala National Park encompasses 240,000 hectares within an extensive reserve of biodiversity and fertile soil. Unfortunately, this invaluable resource has emerged as a primary threat to the park's survival due to escalating human pressure. Masoala contends with challenges stemming from agricultural and illegal exploitation. This paper adopts a comprehensive approach by integrating economic valuation and spatial analysis, presenting a dashboard for decision-makers to guide conservation efforts. This approach offers a holistic perspective on the conservation keys. Firstly, the analysis delves into the economic valuation of the park, encompassing both direct and indirect uses. Secondly, utilizing spatial data, the study identifies zones outside the park suitable for alternative income-generating activities. Ultimately, this research furnishes decision-makers with a valuable tool to advance conservation initiatives within Masoala National Park.

Evaluating the Financial Effectiveness of Funded Projects on Tiger Conservation in Bangladesh

Background and Research AimsThe conservation of Bengal tigers is a global concern due to their exponential decline in population around the world. In 2010, all Tiger Range Countries (TRCs) committed to double their tiger population by 2022. As a member of the TRCs, Bangladesh has launched and conducted many tiger conservation projects with a heavy financial investment. However, the tiger population has not increased in the country. Therefore, there is an urgent need to investigate why those funded projects’ outcomes were unsatisfactory compared to neighboring countries such as India and Nepal.MethodsThis review was conducted purely based on previous archival tiger conservation related documents. Six specific tiger conservation projects implemented in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal were selected to investigate the effectiveness of tiger conservation in Bangladesh. Allocated fund distributions were segmented into five groups: capacity building, planning policy and reports, infrastructural development, tiger–human conflict (THC) reduction, and in-field actions to increase the tiger population.ResultsThe analysis showed that India and Nepal spent most of their budget on in-field activities and least on planning. A moderate amount was spent on THC reduction, capacity building, and infrastructural development. In contrast, Bangladesh spent the majority of its fund on planning. India and Nepal also developed a sustainable funding mechanism to reduce their dependency on donor agencies, which was absent in the case of Bangladesh.ConclusionIt is recommended that future tiger conservation initiatives in Bangladesh should address more in-field action, such as patrolling to stop poaching and the illegal extraction of resources, sustainable long-term alternative income generation activities, and health issues such as identifying diseases, inbreeding effects, and captive breeding.Implications for ConservationBangladesh needs to develop a sustainable long-term funding mechanism for in-field actions for tiger protection.

Gender Differences in Informal Labor-Market Resilience

Abstract This paper reports on the universe of garment-making-firm owners in a Ghanaian district capital during the COVID-19 crisis. By July 2020, 80 percent of both male- and female-owned firms were operational. However, pre-pandemic data show that selection into persistent closure differs by gender. Consistent with a “cleansing effect” of recessions and highlighting the presence of marginal female entrepreneurs, female-owned firms that remain closed past the spring lockdown are negatively selected on pre-pandemic sales. The pre-pandemic sales distributions of female survivors and non-survivors are significantly different from each other. Female owners of non-operational firms exit to non-employment and experience large decreases in overall earnings. In contrast, persistently closed male-owned firms are not selected on pre-pandemic firm characteristics. Instead, male non-survivors are 36 percentage points more likely than male survivors to have another income-generating activity prior to the crisis. Male owners of persistently closed firms fully compensate for revenue losses in their core businesses with earnings from these alternative income-generating activities. Taken together, the evidence is most consistent with differential underlying occupational choice fundamentals for self-employed men and women in this context.

People’s Perception towards COVID-19 Delta Variant in Bangladesh

Bangladesh has detected a newly mutated Delta variant that is getting more hazardous for the entire world. Since this variant is far more hazardous than the previous one, the purpose of this study is to determine people's reactions to this variant, how to prevent the spread of the Delta variant, and what factors can lead to government failures to control it in Bangladesh. Data were obtained from 417 participants using convenient sampling technique. Descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression were the methods of analysis employed. The results showed that in Bangladesh, persons aged 30 to 49 were more likely than others to be aware of the COVID-19 Delta variant. Since social media and newspapers are important sources of information, it was discovered that those who did not use social media or read newspapers had low perception of the new COVID-19 Delta variant. Furthermore, individuals who had a COVID-19 infection history together with their friends and family members had a greater perception of the COVID-19 Delta variant than those who did not. The results also showed that rural people in Bangladesh had low perception of the new COVID-19 Delta variant than the urban people. The study recommends that government should force everyone to wear masks and provide alternative income-generating activities for marginalized individuals in order to limit the spread of the highly contagious Delta variant. Moreover, government should create more awareness and intensify health education in order to restrict the spread of the new COVID-19 variant.

Effectiveness of co-management in reducing forest dependency and improving socioeconomics of forest dependent people in Bangladesh

Abstract. Yeasmin S, Islam KN, Jashimuddin M, Rahman MM, Jiku AC. 2022. Effectiveness of co-management in reducing forest dependency and improving socioeconomics of forest dependent people in Bangladesh. Asian J For 6: 56-64. Co-management of forest protected areas (PA) has started its journey in Bangladesh, intending to conserve forest resources by creating alternative income-generating activities for forest-dependent people. This study was designed to assess the effectiveness of co-management initiatives in improving socio-economic status and reducing peoples' forest dependency at Dudpukuria-Dhopachari Wildlife Sanctuary (DDWS), Bangladesh. A total of 142 respondents consisting of 71 co-management project-supported people (treatment) and 71 local people (control) with similar socio-economic conditions without any project support, were surveyed randomly through a semi-structured questionnaire. The Difference in Differences (DiD) method was applied to assess the effectiveness of this program. Results revealed that there was an insignificant difference between co-management participants and non-participants in the case of total income. Both parties also observed a similar trend for total forest resource extraction. However, the monthly income of co-management participants from secondary occupations increased by USD 16.46. In contrast, the monthly fuel wood extraction of the co-management participants was reduced, equivalent to USD 2.21. The studied socio-economic parameters were more or less similar for both parties. We conclude that the co-management interventions in DDWS resulted from insignificant differences in terms of socio-economic conditions and forest dependency of local forest-dependent communities.

Potential socio-economic impact of replacing traditional woven baskets with reusable plastic crates on livelihoods of basket makers in Southeast Nigeria

In Nigeria, packaging of fresh fruits and vegetables especially tomatoes is mostly done using traditional woven baskets from palm fronds. There is a belief that the introduction of reusable plastic crates (RPC) may take away the source of livelihood of basket makers and sellers who are majorly domiciled in the southeastern zone of Nigeria. The study assessed the potential socio-economic impact of replacing baskets with plastic crates for fresh tomato transportation on the livelihoods of basket makers in southeast Nigeria. Primary data were collected using structured questionnaires. Overall, 430 basket makers were drawn from 16 basket production villages in Anambra, Imo, Ebonyi and Enugu states of the southeast. The primary source of income for the majority of the respondents (90.6%) was basket making, with other sources of income being mostly trading (21.3%) and farming (18.6%). About 28.9% of the respondents' income was between N11,000 and N20,000, while 34.7% were earning less thanN10,00 and 36.4% earning above N20,000. As many as 76.7% were willing to diversify into other businesses, particularly trading (37.3%), provision selling (16%) and skilled work (10.6%). The major challenges identified in diversifying were shortage of capital (96.3%) and a lack of prerequisite skills (3.7%). These challenges could be resolved by government intervention (47.8%), provision of financial aid, (39.2%); new jobs (2.2%) and loans (3.2%). Alternative income-generating activities include opening a provision store, food selling, rearing of animals/animal husbandry, trading in automobile spare parts, fruit selling, meat selling, bakery and confectionary. The perceived impacts of replacing baskets with RPCs were joblessness, increased poverty, crime and prostitution, rural urban drift and a dwindling economy. It is thus recommended that plastic crate introduction should be gradual and systematic and basket makers should be properly sensitized and informed. Government and non-governmental organizations should assist basket makers in mitigating the potential impact of replacing baskets with RPCs. Key words: Socio-economic impact, socio-economic characteristics, basket makers, livelihood activities, southeast Nigeria

INFLUENCE OF STAFFING LEVELS ON QUALITY OF EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN MURANG’A COUNTY, KENYA

Statement of the Research Problem: Teaching staff is crucial in the provision of quality education in public secondary schools. However, in Murang’a County, many public secondary schools registering a low quality of education.
 Purpose of the Study: This study aimed at determining the influence of staffing levels on quality of education in public secondary schools in Murang’a County, Kenya.
 Methodology: The study adopted a correlation research design. This study targeted 292 principals and 3206 teachers totaling 3498 from which a sample of 360 respondents (10.3%) was determined using Yamane’s Formula. Using stratified sampling, eight strata considering sub-counties were created. From every sub-county, three principals were selected using purposive sampling. However, from each sub-county, 42 teachers (14 teachers per school) were selected using simple random sampling to avoid bias. Questionnaires were used to gather information from principals and teachers whereas a documentary checklist guide was used by the researcher. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentages and inferentially using Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation Analysis with the help of Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS 23) and presented by using tables.
 Research Findings: The study established that students’ academic performance in national examinations (KCSE) is low, students’ completion rates with quality grades (C+ and above) are on a decreasing trend and levels and frequency of participation in co-curricular activities are low. From the study findings, the student-teacher ratio in public secondary schools is high owing to the high number of students enrolled courtesy of the Free Day Secondary Education Policy. This implies that, by having an inadequate number of teachers, it is difficult to attend to academic and other delegated duties and thus, not possible to accord students individual attention, which is the essential aspect of quality education.
 Unique Contribution to Theory, Policy and Practice: The findings of this study lend credence to the premise of the Education Production Function Theory since it revealed that there is a correlation between instruction resources and quality of education. As a practice, secondary schools should engage in alternative income-generating activities to acquire more financial resources to hire more teachers to supplement government’s efforts to bridge the gap in the student-teacher ratio. As a policy, the government should ensure adherence to the policy on fair distribution of teachers based on the number of students.

Forest co-management in the Sundarban mangrove forest: Impacts of women's participation on their livelihoods and sustainable forest resource conservation

The impacts of women's participation in forest resource management on forest conservation and women's livelihoods are poorly understood. This study investigated women's role in Sundarban mangrove forest co-management in order to identify these impacts. Qualitative data was collected through focus group discussions (FGDs, n = 16) and key informant interviews (KIIs, n = 29) in four villages, at different tiers of co-management institutions, and with multiple stakeholders. Thematic content analysis, a well-established method for analysing qualitative data, was used to investigate the views of stakeholders on women's role in forest co-management and its impact on forest conservation and livelihood outcomes. Women participate in all tiers of forest co-management institutions, including the village conservation forum, people's forum, community patrol group, and co-management committee. This participation has increased their awareness and understanding of government rules and regulations in forest conservation, extended women's social networks, and created opportunities for involvement in alternative income-generating activities. Thus, women have benefited from the provision of greater financial input into their families, which has ultimately elevated women's status in the family. Local women's knowledge of sustainable forest resource harvesting methods and compliance with Bangladesh Forest Department directives can foster forest resources conservation and wildlife protection. Although women contribute to forest conservation through their participation, their representation is lower than that of men in the co-management of the Sundarban mangrove forest. Policy interventions for community members are needed to influence men's attitudes towards women working outside the home. This may equalise gender participation in forest co-management and increase women's livelihood support through greater recognition of their roles and elevating the value and impact of their participation.

Is co-management a double-edged sword in the protected areas of Sundarbans mangrove?

The overall objective of the study was to examine the pros and cons of the participatory approach adopted in natural resource management in the ecologically protected areas of the Sundarbans mangrove of Bangladesh. A comparative study was done between the people who are involved and non-involved in this approach. Empirical data was collected through personal interviews with a structured questionnaire. The Gini coefficient was measured first and then embedded with the Lorenz curve to draw a line between perfect equality and inequality vis-a-vis. The study revealed that the co-management built awareness in favor of biodiversity conservation and the efficient use of natural resources. Contradictorily, a segment of different hierarchical committees was involved in destructive activities like poisoning the wetlands for fishing. Therefore, a mixed outcome was found. The findings will help the policymakers in identifying the pitfalls and bottlenecks rooted in co-management. Hence, the study recommends revising the approach to ensure the community’s active participation on an equal basis and take action against them who degrade those resources. Exploring profitable alternative income-generating activities is warranted to narrow down the dependency on the Sundarbans mangrove’s natural resources. In order to address the tragedy of the commons, the study advocates for the unity of all knowledge ranging from science to humanistic scholarship for sound policymaking.

Income Sustainability Of Private Universities In A Sub-Saharan African Country: Ghana

Tertiary institutions, both public and private, play a vital role in global socio-economic development through the production of human capacity. However, an area of research that has gotten relatively little academic attention in the Ghanaian higher education milieu is private universities' strategic responses to their financial sustainability. The purpose of this study, which used an exploratory research methodology, was to examine the various sources of income generation by private universities and strategic responses adopted to sustain their financing in Ghana. With an incorporated case study design, the study used a qualitative research methodology. The main findings, which were supported by data from semi-structured interviews conducted in five private universities and documentary evidence, showed that the primary source of pressure on private tertiary institutions comes from the limited funding that prevents them from achieving their missions. The findings also showed that private universities had taken certain strategic steps to counteract the effects of their restricted funding. The options highlighted included sustaining tuition fees through an aggressive admission strategy, income diversification strategy by expanding non-traditional sources of income, commercialising, and research. For the universities, cost-cutting through increased budgetary efficiency also represented a more important strategy. Although private universities in Ghana continue to haphazardly rely on inadequate funding, the survey found that they are actively engaged in numerous varied and alternative income-generating activities in order to survive.

Illegal Wildlife Trade: Trade Flows of Wildlife Products and Facilitation Methods in the Ruaha Landscape, Tanzania

Tanzania’s Ruaha landscape is prominent for its potential wildlife resources, which play a key role in sustaining the economy and livelihoods of the people. However, most of these resources are illegally obtained and traded in different places within and outside the Ruaha landscape. Due to its illegal nature, most of the important information regarding the trade is poorly documented. Therefore, the current study aimed first, to explore the origin and destination of wildlife products; second, to assess the relationship between hunters and buyers or customers; third, to assess the means used to transport wildlife products; and lastly, to assess who influences people to engage in illegal hunting and trade activities. In addition, we assess the materials used in the exchange of wildlife products. Semi-structured questionnaires and face-to-face interviews were used to collect information from 123 respondents. Social network analysis was used to indicate the origin and destination of wildlife products. The findings show that 70% of wildlife products originate from the Ruaha National Park and MBOMIPA wildlife management areas, with the remaining 30% originating from villages. The majority of respondents (65%) reported transporting wildlife products by foot and bicycle as the primary modes of transportation. Suppliers of wildlife products are reported to have close and long-term relationships with their customers and traders, with most of whom being friends and relatives. We found most poachers to be influenced by their friends and relatives in terms making decision to engage in illegal wildlife trade. In addition, crops like maize and rice were the most popular products used to exchange with wildlife products in the Ruaha landscape. Therefore, in order to combat illegal trade in wildlife products at the local level, alternative income-generating activities need to be promoted accompanied by not only well-funded anti-poaching programmes but also more effective surveillance plans. These should entail the use of advanced techniques and skills, such as wildlife forensics.

Perceptions of Urban Pollution of River Dependent Rural Communities and Their Impact: A Case Study in Bangladesh

This study considers the Old Brahmaputra River, Bangladesh, as a case study regarding community perceptions on urban pollution and its impact on rural communities. In doing so, in-depth individual interviews (n = 195), key informant interviews (n = 7), and focus group discussions (n = 7) were conducted by emphasizing different perspectives on urban pollution and its effects on people related to losses of fisheries resources, agricultural production, human health, and livelihood transformation. The findings illustrate that poor urban solid waste management and direct sewage discharge degrade rivers daily. The most vulnerable rural communities are directly dependent upon the river, including fishermen, farmers, and boatmen. Specific measures such as an effluent treatment plant should be established near the river, and households and commercial drains should be cut off from the direct connection with the river. Alternative income-generating activities for the stakeholders are suggested to safeguard the river from urban pollution and the wellbeing of the stakeholders.

Resilience of small-scale marine fishers of Bangladesh against the COVID-19 pandemic and the 65-day fishing ban

In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic-induced nationwide lockdown (March-May) and the conservation-related 65-day fishing ban (May-July) in Bangladesh restricted its small-scale fishing folks from fishing for an unprecedented 130 days. This study assessed the resilience of two small-scale fishing communities in Barguna and Cox’s Bazar districts against these subsequent disturbances. The research developed a conceptual framework based on Zurich Flood Resilience Alliance’s ‘5 C-4R Framework’, which considers the relationships among a wide range of sources of resilience with livelihood capitals and resilience properties. By analyzing 100 interviews with marine fishers, this paper showed how weakened livelihood capitals affected the resilience of fishing communities. Dependency on a single income source, inadequate access to aid and financial and natural resources, lack of skills and knowledge on alternative livelihood options, absence of strong social protection and social networks, social inequalities, institutional incompetence, and lack of community leadership and cooperation severely affected fishers’ resilience. This study revealed that financial capital is directly linked with all resilience properties that require special attention to ensure fishers’ well-being. The paper recommended drastic investments in small-scale marine fishers through long-term livelihood improvement and asset creation, skills and knowledge development on natural-resource-based alternative income generation activities, and an exclusive social safety net program for these fisherfolks. The approach and findings of this study can guide other emerging economies who enjoy significant contributions from the marine fisheries sector to understand the resilience of their fishers and to address the prevailing challenges owing to the pandemic and other natural calamities.

Geospatial approach to the risk assessment of climate-induced disasters (drought and erosion) and impacts on out-migration in Nepal

Out-migration is one of the most recognized adaptation practices when dealing with scarce resources and disasters. With the general objective of exploring migration as an impact of climate-induced disasters, our study was conducted in Khaniyapani, in the Sunapati rural municipality of Ramechhap district, Nepal. Disaster prioritization was conducted using the pair-wise ranking method, with results suggesting that drought and soil erosion are the most severe disasters in the study area. The severity maps were prepared using remotely sensed data. A Normalized Difference Drought Index and the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation were used to produce the drought and erosion severity maps, respectively. Approximately 46.2% of the total study area was found to experience severe droughts, and almost 10% of the area had high soil erosion rates. In total, 100 out of 794 households were interviewed for a semi-structured questionnaire. Drought severity was found to directly impact livelihoods due to a decline in agricultural productivity, a decline in livestock, and drying of water sources. Out of 100 families, 64 practiced seasonal migration. A decline in agricultural productivity and livestock, and water scarcity were identified as the most influencing push factors. Excessive seasonal migration has reduced the resilience of these families. Drought-resistant land, water, and crop management techniques and practices, and alternative income-generating activities should be promoted to curb the seasonal migration.

Microcredit expansion and informal donor interests: Experiences from local NGOs in the Sundarbans Mangrove Forest, Bangladesh

The growth of microcredit has been widely acknowledged, and it possesses significant potential for alleviating poverty. In microcredit functioning, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) intend to utilize available resources for facilitating poor people’s income-generating activities. Theory affirms that donors-NGO relationships mostly depend on informal interests apart from implementing formal development programs. In practice, NGOs tendency evolves for growing financial self-reliance over time with microcredit expansion. Donors assume and admit NGOs’ functions and rely only on financial statements and performance reports rather than on-field activities. There is a considerable debate whether the donors’ formal and informal interests drive the microcredit system, even though agreements exist with NGOs for running development projects in their respective localities. This paper examines the causes of microcredit expansion, with the aim of finding any causal link, if present, between the independent variables—local people’s financial status and available financial support from the NGOs—and the dependent variable, microcredit expansion. Considering the ecological and socio-economic importance of the Sundarbans Mangrove Forest (SMF), the activities of an NGO close to it are the focus of this study since local people’s livelihoods depend largely on the SMF’s natural resources. Following a qualitative research approach with quantitative elements, content analysis of the on-field collected documents about microcredit and projects of the selected NGO were carried out. Information on organizational interests were extracted following informal open-ended interview with the NGO officials and local borrowers. The results indicate that the expansion of microcredit depends on its high demand due to the local people’s economic condition and the availability of financing sources. The analysis observes that the financing from donors and government sources acts informally as seed money for microcredit operations, which have established long-term expansion through handling large contributory funds from borrowers’ savings. Although donors’ formal interests are promoting local people’s alternative income-generating activities beyond the resources of the SMF, donors acknowledge microcredit expansion as part of their informal interest in carrying out future activities with the local NGOs. Since the dependency of NGOs’ activities on donors’ priorities is evident, it would be worthwhile to study further how NGOs’ policy interests are reshaped in sustaining microcredit businesses by the changing funding preferences of donors.

Effect of decision rules in choice experiments on hunting and bushmeat trade.

Providing insight on decisions to hunt and trade bushmeat can facilitate improved management interventions that typically include enforcement, alternative employment, and donation of livestock. Conservation interventions to regulate bushmeat hunting and trade have hitherto been based on assumptions of utility- (i.e., personal benefits) maximizing behavior, which influences the types of incentives designed. However, if individuals instead strive to minimize regret, interventions may be misguided. We tested support for 3 hypotheses regarding decision rules through a choice experiment in Tanzania. We estimated models based on the assumptions of random utility maximization (RUM) and pure random regret maximization (P-RRM) and combinations thereof. One of these models had an attribute-specific decision rule and another had a class-specific decision rule. The RUM model outperformed the P-RRM model, but the attribute-specific model performed better. Allowing respondents with different decision rules and preference heterogeneity within each decision rule in a class-specific model performed best, revealing that 55% of the sample used a P-RRM decision rule. Individuals using a P-RRM decision rule responded less to enforcement, salary, and livestock donation than did individuals using the RUM decision rule. Hence, 3 common strategies, enforcement, alternative income-generating activities, and providing livestock as a substitute protein, are likely less effective in changing the behavior of more than half of respondents. Only salary elicited a large (i.e. elastic) response, and only for one RUM class. Policies to regulate the bushmeat trade based solely on the assumption of individuals maximizing utility, may fail for a significant proportion of the sample. Despite the superior performance of models that allow both RUM and P-RRM decision rules there are drawbacks that must be considered before use in the Global South, where very little is known about the social-psychology of decision making.

Community Dependency and Conservation Practices in Khagrachari, Bangladesh: A Study on Management of Village Common Forests (VCFs)

Forest is one of the main sources of different resources where indigenous communities are mostly dependent on the forest for their sustainable management of life. Following the dependency of indigenous communities on natural resources and their conservation practices and development of Village Common Forest (VCF) in Chittagong hill tracts. Present study was conducted at Haduk Para and Hridoy Member Para VCF’s in Khagrachari, Bangladesh to understand the dependency and practices of villagers on the VCF for their livelihood and other resources. Among different types of products extracted from Haduk Para and Hridoy Member Para, the monetary value was highest (14700 BDT and 22400 BDT, respectively) for timber but fuelwood is the most extracted product (1930 Kg HH-1Yr-1 and 2470 Kg HH-1Yr-1, respectively) they have collected from VCF. Besides, to fulfill daily personal needs different plant edible products, fauna, and medicinal plants have been collected by the community people from both VCFs. In case of conservation purpose, Hridoy Member Para giving more priority for protecting the source of water resources where the majority from Haduk Para community replied that their priority was to avert natural calamities. However, both the VCFs community have taken some initiatives to reduce the pressure from the forest floor like enrichment planting, non-wood forest products cultivation, regional training for handicraft manufacturing and alternative income generation activities for the villagers. Therefore, safeguarding forest and biodiversity resources and at the same time improving the livelihood security for the indigenous communities, nowadays is mandatory to protect and manage these VCFs from being degraded.