Alterations In Cardiac Contractility Research Articles

Hypochlorite-Modified LDL Induces Arrhythmia and Contractile Dysfunction in Cardiomyocytes.

Neutrophil-derived myeloperoxidase (MPO) and its potent oxidant, hypochlorous acid (HOCl), gained attention as important oxidative mediators in cardiac damage and dysfunction. As cardiomyocytes generate low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-like particles, we aimed to identify the footprints of proatherogenic HOCl-LDL, which adversely affects cellular signalling cascades in various cell types, in the human infarcted myocardium. We performed immunohistochemistry for MPO and HOCl-LDL in human myocardial tissue, investigated the impact of HOCl-LDL on electrophysiology and contractility in primary cardiomyocytes, and explored underlying mechanisms in HL-1 cardiomyocytes and human atrial appendages using immunoblot analysis, qPCR, and silencing experiments. HOCl-LDL reduced ICa,L and IK1, and increased INaL, leading to altered action potential characteristics and arrhythmic events including early- and delayed-afterdepolarizations. HOCl-LDL altered the expression and function of CaV1.2, RyR2, NCX1, and SERCA2a, resulting in impaired contractility and Ca2+ homeostasis. Elevated superoxide anion levels and oxidation of CaMKII were mediated via LOX-1 signaling in HL-1 cardiomyocytes. Furthermore, HOCl-LDL-mediated alterations of cardiac contractility and electrophysiology, including arrhythmic events, were ameliorated by the CaMKII inhibitor KN93 and the INaL blocker, ranolazine. This study provides an explanatory framework for the detrimental effects of HOCl-LDL compared to native LDL and cardiac remodeling in patients with high MPO levels during the progression of cardiovascular disease.

Amplification of Cardiac Motor Functions by Prestin (Slc26a5)

The human heart is a durable biological motor, beating approximately 3.4 billion times in an 80-year lifespan. Actual cardiac performance originates in the function of cardiac myocytes, which are electromotile, changing in length in response to a change in membrane potentials. Groundbreaking work by Hugh Huxley and Jean Hanson et al. in the 1950s introduced the “sliding filament theory” that during muscle contraction, myosin and the filamentous actin protein form cross-bridges, allowing myosin to slide along actin, leading to length changes and force generation. Some muscle contraction mechanisms remain unexplained, such as how the sarcolemma accommodates ∼0.2-μm-displacement length changes per sarcomere per cardiac cycle without experiencing significant distortion. Here we invoke and test for the presence and function of a canonical non-conventional motor protein, prestin (Slc26a5), in cardiomyocytes as an amplifier of actin-myosin force generation. Prestin has been thought to be expressed exclusively in outer hair cells (OHCs) of the inner ear. It is a direct voltage-to-force convertor and mediates electromotility of OHCs as part of the molecular element of cochlear sound amplification. We hypothesize that prestin is expressed in mouse and human heart tissue and serves as the cardiac mechanical amplifier. We investigated whether the genetic deletion of Slc26a5 (Slc26a5-/-) produces in vivo and in vitro cardiac contractility changes. Multimodal Second Harmonic Generation (SHG) two-photon fluorescence microscopy and Stimulated Emission Depletion (STED) microscopy analyses were used to substantiate findings of the expression and functional roles of prestin in ventricular myocytes. We conclude that prestin serves to amplify actin-myosin force generation in cardiomyocytes, accounting for the non-linear properties of muscle contraction. The functional significance of prestin is underpinned by alterations of cardiac contractility in Slc26a5-/-mice. Our results suggest that prestin may serve as a broader cellular motor amplifier.

The importance of heart rate in isoprenaline-induced takotsubo-like cardiac dysfunction in rats.

AimsTakotsubo syndrome (TS) is an acute cardiac syndrome characterized by regional myocardial akinesia that cannot be attributed to a culprit lesion in coronary arteries. Cardiac overstimulation by catecholamines in the setting of stress is implicated in the pathogenesis of TS. While catecholamine‐induced alterations in cardiac contractility have been studied as part of the causal pathway in TS, the importance of catecholamine‐mediated tachycardia has not been studied. Our aim was to explore whether the reduction in heart rate, either by pharmacological suppression of the sinoatrial node with ivabradine or by surgical induction of third‐degree atrioventricular block, prevents isoprenaline‐induced TS‐like akinesia in an experimental animal model.Methods and resultsWe used 142 female Sprague–Dawley rats in two separate protocols. The TS‐like phenotype was induced by an intraperitoneal bolus dose of isoprenaline (ISO) 50 mg/kg. In the first protocol, we randomized 54 rats to ivabradine 10 min before ISO (IVAB1), ivabradine 10 min after ISO (IVAB2), or saline 10 min before ISO (CONTROL). In the second protocol, we randomized 88 rats to surgically induced complete heart block (CHB) or sham operation (CTRL) 10 min before the administration of ISO. All drugs were administered intraperitoneally. We recorded heart rate and blood pressure invasively in the right carotid artery. Cardiac morphology and function were evaluated by high‐resolution echocardiography (VisualSonics 770 VEVO, Toronto, Ontario, Canada) 90 min after ISO injection. IVAB1 and IVAB2 rats had significantly lower heart rate and less pronounced TS‐like cardiac dysfunction than CONTROL. CHB rats had a lower (54%) heart rate, and no animal developed left ventricular akinesia. In the first protocol, the CONTROL group had a median degree of akinesia of 10.2 [inter‐quartile range (IQR) 0.0–18.6]. The IVAB1 group showed a median of akinesia of 0% (IQR 0.0–0.0, P < 0.001 vs. CONTROL). In the IVAB2 group, 5% had TS‐like dysfunction (P = 0.001). Ejection fraction was higher in both the IVAB1 (92%, IQR 89–95) and IVAB2 groups (93%, IQR 87–96) than in the CONTROL group (78%, IQR 63–87, P < 0.05). In the second protocol, the median degree of akinesia in the CTRL group was 21.9% (IQR 8.9–24.6). In the CHB group, no rat developed akinesia (median 0%; IQR 0.0–0.0, P < 0.001 vs. CONTROL). Ejection fraction was higher in the CHB group (90%, IQR 87–92) than in the CTRL group (51%, IQR 87–92, P < 0.05).ConclusionsIsoprenaline‐induced TS‐like cardiac dysfunction can be prevented by lowering heart rate. Tachycardia may be an important part of the causal pathway in TS.

TRPM4 Modulates Right Ventricular Remodeling Under Pressure Load Accompanied With Decreased Expression Level

Survival of patients with congenital heart defects including increased right ventricular pressure load (ie, tetralogy of Fallot) or pulmonary hypertension is dependent on the function of the right ventricle (RV). RV remodeling has several effects with progressive transition from compensated status to heart failure. Transient receptor potential melastatin 4 (TRPM4) forms cation channels expressed in myocardium, which was shown to modulate cardiac remodeling in the left ventricle of mice. Aim of this study was to identify the role of TRPM4 for contractile function and remodeling of the RV in a rat model of right ventricular pressure load. We performed experiments with untreated rats and under monocrotaline (MCT)-induced pressure load comparing wild-type (Trpm4+/+) and TRPM4-deficient (Trpm4-/-) rats. RV function was characterized by echocardiography and contractility measurements of isolated papillary muscles. RV hypertrophy was investigated by echocardiography and by determination of hypertrophy indices. Pulmonary arterial remodeling was evaluated by echocardiography and histology. TRPM4 protein expression in RV of human, rat and mouse was detected by Western blot and quantified in rat. TRPM4 proteins were detected in RV myocardium of rat and mouse, which were not detectable in TRPM4-deficient animals. Proteins of the same size were found in RV of a pediatric patient with tetralogy of Fallot. In untreated status, Trpm4+/+ and Trpm4-/- rats showed comparable RV contractile function and dimensions. Under pressure load (42 days after MCT injection), RV hypertrophy was significantly increased in Trpm4-/- rats compared with Trpm4+/+ controls, whereas MCT-mediated alterations in cardiac contractility and pulmonary arterial remodeling were not affected by TRPM4 inactivation in rats. Finally, TRPM4 protein expression in RV was drastically reduced in MCT-treated rats, whereas left ventricle of the same animals showed no alteration in TRPM4 expression. Right ventricular pressure load evoked by MCT treatment in rats leads to a prominent downregulation of TRPM4 protein expression in the RV and complete deletion of TRPM4 expression aggravates right ventricular hypertrophy. Thus, therapeutic modulation of TRPM4 expression and activity might represent a novel approach to target right ventricular remodeling in patients with pulmonary hypertension or otherwise loaded RV.

Prestin Amplifies Cardiac Motor Functions

Cardiac cells generate and amplify force in the context of cardiac load, yet the membranous sheath enclosing the fibers, the sarcolemma, does not experience displacement. The fact that the sarcolemma sustains beat-to-beat pressure changes without experiencing significant distortion is the muscle contraction paradox the authors sought to resolve. Here, we report that an elastic element, the motor protein prestin (Slc26a5), serves to amplify actin-myosin force generation in mouse and human cardiac myocytes, accounting for the nonlinear properties of contraction. The functional significance of prestin is underpinned by alterations of cardiac contractility in Prestin knockout mice. Prestin was previously considered exclusive to outer hair cells of the inner ear; however, our results show that prestin serves a broader cellular motor function.

A Designed Zinc-finger Transcriptional Repressor of Phospholamban Improves Function of the Failing Heart

Selective inhibition of disease-related proteins underpins the majority of successful drug–target interactions. However, development of effective antagonists is often hampered by targets that are not druggable using conventional approaches. Here, we apply engineered zinc-finger protein transcription factors (ZFP TFs) to the endogenous phospholamban (PLN) gene, which encodes a well validated but recalcitrant drug target in heart failure. We show that potent repression of PLN expression can be achieved with specificity that approaches single-gene regulation. Moreover, ZFP-driven repression of PLN increases calcium reuptake kinetics and improves contractile function of cardiac muscle both in vitro and in an animal model of heart failure. These results support the development of the PLN repressor as therapy for heart failure, and provide evidence that delivery of engineered ZFP TFs to native organs can drive therapeutically relevant levels of gene repression in vivo. Given the adaptability of designed ZFPs for binding diverse DNA sequences and the ubiquity of potential targets (promoter proximal DNA), our findings suggest that engineered ZFP repressors represent a powerful tool for the therapeutic inhibition of disease-related genes, therefore, offering the potential for therapeutic intervention in heart failure and other poorly treated human diseases.

Targeted inhibition of sarcoplasmic reticulum CaMKII activity results in alterations of Ca2+homeostasis and cardiac contractility

Transgenic (TG) mice expressing a Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) inhibitory peptide targeted to the cardiac myocyte longitudinal sarcoplasmic reticulum (LSR) display reduced phospholamban phosphorylation at Thr17 and develop dilated myopathy when stressed by gestation and parturition (Ji Y, Li B, Reed TD, Lorenz JN, Kaetzel MA, and Dedman JR. J Biol Chem 278: 25063-25071, 2003). In the present study, these animals (TG) are evaluated for the effect of inhibition of sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) CaMKII activity on the contractile characteristics and Ca2+ cycling of myocytes. Analysis of isolated work-performing hearts demonstrated moderate decreases in the maximal rates of contraction and relaxation (+/-dP/dt) in TG mice. The response of the TG hearts to increases in load is reduced. The TG hearts respond to isoproterenol (Iso) in a dose-dependent manner; the contractile properties were reduced in parallel to wild-type hearts. Assessment of isolated cardiomyocytes from TG mice revealed 40-47% decrease in the maximal rates of myocyte shortening and relengthening under both basal and Iso-stimulated conditions. Although twitch Ca2+ transient amplitudes were not significantly altered, the rate of twitch intracellular Ca2+ concentration decline was reduced by approximately 47% in TG myocytes, indicating decreased SR Ca2+ uptake function. Caffeine-induced Ca2+ transients indicated unaltered SR Ca2+ content and Na+/Ca2+ exchange function. Phosphorylation assays revealed an approximately 30% decrease in the phosphorylation of ryanodine receptor Ser2809. Iso stimulation increased the phosphorylation of both phospholamban Ser16 and the ryanodine receptor Ser2809 but not phospholamban Thr17 in TG mice. This study demonstrates that inhibition of SR CaMKII activity at the LSR results in alterations in cardiac contractility and Ca2+ handling in TG hearts.

PI3Kγ Modulates the Cardiac Response to Chronic Pressure Overload by Distinct Kinase-Dependent and -Independent Effects

The G protein-coupled, receptor-activated phosphoinositide 3-kinase γ (PI3Kγ) mediates inflammatory responses and negatively controls cardiac contractility by reducing cAMP concentration. Here, we report that mice carrying a targeted mutation in the PI3Kγ gene causing loss of kinase activity (PI3Kγ KD/KD) display reduced inflammatory reactions but no alterations in cardiac contractility. We show that, in PI3Kγ KD/KD hearts, cAMP levels are normal and that PI3Kγ-deficient mice but not PI3Kγ KD/KD mice develop dramatic myocardial damage after chronic pressure overload induced by transverse aortic constriction (TAC). Finally, our data indicate that PI3Kγ is an essential component of a complex controlling PDE3B phosphodiesterase-mediated cAMP destruction. Thus, cardiac PI3Kγ participates in two distinct signaling pathways: a kinase-dependent activity that controls PKB/Akt as well as MAPK phosphorylation and contributes to TAC-induced cardiac remodeling, and a kinase-independent activity that relies on protein interactions to regulate PDE3B activity and negatively modulates cardiac contractility.

Esmolol attenuates hepatic blood flow responses during sodium nitroprusside-induced hypotension in dogs.

The hemodynamic responses secondary to sympathetic suppression by esmolol may alter blood flow to splanchnic organs. We investigated whether esmolol might modify splanchnic organ blood flow responses during sodium nitroprusside (SNP)-induced hypotension in dogs anesthetized with sevoflurane. The control group (n = 10) received SNP (SNP group). The ES25 and ES100 groups (n = 10, each) received SNP combined with esmolol infused at a constant rate of 25 and 100 micro g*kg(-1)*min(-1) during the hypotensive period after a mean arterial pressure (MAP) of 60 mmHg was attained by the infusion of a 0.03% SNP solution, respectively. The renal, hepatic, and pancreatic blood flows (RBF, HBF, and PBF) were measured by using the hydrogen clearance method. Cardiac index in the SNP group increased (P < 0.01), but in the ES groups it decreased (P < 0.01). Left ventricular dP/dtmax in the SNP group remained unchanged, but in the ES groups it decreased (P < 0.01, each) during the hypotensive period. Except for HBF in the SNP group, the splanchnic blood flow in all groups decreased (P < 0.01, each). The HBF in the ES groups was lower than that in the SNP group (SNP vs ES25, ES100; 70 +/- 1 vs 64 +/- 5, 6 3 +/- 3 mL*min(-1)*100 g(-1)). This study shows that the differences in HBF between SNP-induced hypotension with or without esmolol may be due to the changes in cardiac output caused by alterations of cardiac contractility. These findings suggest that a small dose of esmolol may impair the maintenance of HBF during SNP-induced hypotension.

Hemodynamic Effects of Glibenclamide During Endotoxemia: Contrasting Findings In Vitro Versus In Vivo

The final common pathway involved in the cardiovascular alterations of septic shock is incompletely defined. The opening of KATP channels is associated with vasorelaxation and alterations in cardiac contractility. This event may be triggered during septic shock by increased nitric oxide (NO) production, by a decreased intracellular content of ATP, or by a change in the transmembrane electrical potential. In the present study, we assessed the effects of glibenclamide, an agent that blocks the opening of KATP channels in vitro, on the contractile response of rat aortic rings to norepinephrine, and in vivo in anesthetized dogs, with or without exposure to Escherichia coli endotoxin. In vitro, glibenclamide decreased the contractile response to norepinephrine in the presence of endotoxin, provided that the endothelium was intact. In vivo, administration of 0.15 mg/kg increased systemic vascular resistance (SVR) in the absence of endotoxin only, and increased myocardial performance. A higher dose of 1 mg/kg increased SVR and decreased myocardial performance, both during endotoxic shock and in control conditions. Renal and mesenteric blood flows decreased, but the respective fractional flows were unchanged. Oxygen delivery decreased in both experimental conditions, but oxygen consumption decreased only in control conditions. The in vitro observations suggest that the opening of KATP channels is involved in the regulation of vascular tone during endotoxemia, via an endothelium-dependent mechanism. As different effects of glibenclamide were observed in vivo, the importance of the opening of KATP channels in endotoxic shock may be limited.

Alterations in cardiac contractility and gene expression during low-T3 syndrome: prevention with T3.

The low-T3 syndrome is a metabolic response resulting in a decreased serum triiodothyronine (T3) concentration that has uncertain effects on thyroid hormone-responsive gene expression and function. We measured cardiac myocyte gene expression and cardiac contractility in young adult female rats using chronic calorie deprivation as a model of the low-T3 syndrome. Sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium adenosinetriphosphatase (SERCA2) and myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform mRNA content were measured after 28 days on a 50% calorie-restricted diet (low T3) with or without T3 treatment (6 micrograms.kg body wt-1.day-1). The low-T3 animals had decreased maximal rates of contraction (-13%; P < 0.05) and relaxation (-18%; P < 0.05) compared with the control and the T3-treated groups. There was a 21% (P < 0.05) increase in left ventricular (LV) relaxation time in the low-T3 animals vs. both control and T3-treated groups. The LV content of the SERCA2 mRNA was decreased significantly (37%) in the low-T3 rats and was increased (P < 0.05) with T3 treatment vs. controls. The alpha-MHC mRNA isoform decreased in the low-T3 animals but was unchanged in the T3-treated animals. T3 supplementation normalized both cardiac function and phenotype of calorie-restricted animals, suggesting a role for the low-T3 syndrome in the pathophysiological response to calorie restriction.

Comparative evaluation of the acute effects of oxygen free radicals on myocardial contractility in anesthetized dogs with those occurring in the early stages of splanchnic artery occlusion and hemorrhagic shock: Free Radic Biol Med 1994; 17/2: 171–179

Oxygen free radicals are cytotoxic and generated in excessive quantities during reoxygenation of ischemic organs. It has been demonstrated that oxygen free radicals impair cardiac contractile mechanisms in in vitro studies as well as depress myocardial contractility in in vivo experiments. The objectives of the present studies are to evaluate alterations in cardiac contractility and hemodynamics in two canine models of shock, namely, Wigger's model of hemorrhage and splanchnic artery occlusion (SAO) model. The data obtained in these models are comparatively evaluated with that caused by oxygen free radicals. Pentobarbital anesthetized dogs were instrumented to record blood pressure, heart rate, left ventricular pressure, (LVP & LVEDP) and LVdp/dt. Contractility index was evaluated as max dp/dt.p. In the Wigger's model, during the period of hemorrhage or after reinfusion of the shed blood despite marked variations in preload and afterload, index of contractility was not altered. Similarly, in the SAO model also, during the period of occlusion or after release, contractility index was not depressed. However, in both the models, after reinfusion of the blood (Wigger's) or after release of splanchnic arteries, there were gradual deteriorations of stroke volume, cardiac output, and arterial blood pressure. In contrast, after generation of free radicals by exogenous administration of xanthine plus xanthine oxidase, cardiac contractility was significantly depressed leading to decreases in stroke volume, cardiac output, and blood pressure. Using identical procedures to evaluate contractility, we have demonstrated that the initial depression of myocardial contractility was not the causative factor for circulatory failure in the two models of shock.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Comparative evaluation of the acute effects of oxygen free radicals on myocardial contractility in anesthetized dogs with those occurring in the early stages of splanchnic artery occlusion and hemorrhagic shock

Oxygen free radicals are cytotoxic and generated in excessive quantities during reoxygenation of ischemic organs. It has been demonstrated that oxygen free radicals impair cardiac contractile mechanisms in in vitro studies as well as depress myocardial contractility in in vivo experiments. The objectives of the present studies are to evaluate alterations in cardiac contractility and hemodynamics in two canine models of shock, namely, Wigger's model of hemorrhage and splanchnic artery occlusion (SAO) model. The data obtained in these models are comparatively evaluated with that caused by oxygen free radicals. Pentobarbital anesthetized dogs were instrumented to record blood pressure, heart rate, left ventricular pressure, (LVP & LVEDP) and LVdp/dt. Contractility index was evaluated as max dp/dt · p. In the Wigger's model, during the period of hemorrhage or after reinfusion of the shed blood despite marked variations in preload and afterload, index of contractility was not altered. Similarly, in the SAO model also, during the period of occlusion or after release, contractility index was not depressed. However, in both the models, after reinfusion of the blood (Wigger's) or after release of splanchnic arteries, there were gradual deteriorations of stroke volume, cardiac output, and arterial blood pressure. In contrast, after generation of free radicals by exogenous administration of xanthine plus xanthine oxidase, cardiac contractility was significantly depressed leading to decreases in stroke volume, cardiac output, and blood pressure. Using identical procedures to evaluate contractility, we have demonstrated that the initial depression of myocardial contractility was not the causative factor for circulatory failure in the two models of shock. It is possible that the nature and the time course of generation of free radicals may be entirely different in the models of shock. It is also likely that various physiological compensatory processes that would occur in the early stages of shock may have masked or neutralized the effects of free radicals on the myocardium. Therefore, enhanced venous compliance and venous pooling would account for initiating circulatory failure in the present shock models.

Altered contractile properties of rat cardiac muscle during experimental thiamine deficiency and food deprivation

Alterations of cardiac contractility caused by thiamine deficiency were studied on three groups of 2 month old male Wistar rats: B 1, fed a thiamine deficient diet, PF pair fed, which received an amount of thiamine free diet determined on the daily consumption of B 1 animals, supplemented with appropriate thiamine supply, C ad libitum fed controls. The animals were studied after 35 days of dietary treatment. Force-velocity curves were determined in right ventricle papillary muscles. Shortening velocity was significantly lower in B 1 and PF than in C muscles and in B 1 than in PF muscles. The ability to develop tension was not altered. Myosin ATPase activity was assayed in preparations of myofibrils and in preparations of purified myosin. Both CaMg activated myofibrillar ATPase activity and Ca-activated myosin ATPase activity were significantly reduced in B 1 and PF compared to C myocardium. Furthermore Ca-activated ATPase activity was lower in B 1 than in PF myocardium. Myosin isoenzyme distribution was determined by pyrophosphate gel electrophoresis of purified myosin preparations. When compared to C animals both B 1 and PF animals showed a myosin electrophoretic pattern shifted towards the slow isoform V 3; such a shift was more pronounced in B 1 animals. Information concerning excitation-contraction coupling was obtained by determining the steady state and transient force-interval relation and by recording transmembrane action potential. B 1 and PF myocardium exhibited, when compared to C, a less sensitivity to a reduction of the interval of stimulation, a faster mechanical restitution, a prolonged action potential duration. Such alterations were generally more pronounced in B 1 than in PF myocardium. The results support the view that in the rat cardiac contractility is deeply affected by thiamine deficiency. The alterations of cardiac contractility seem to be caused by adaptive mechanisms rather than by cardiac failure and seem to be attributable for a big part to the reduction of food supply.

Carotid chemoreceptor reflex parasympathetic coronary vasodilation in the dog.

The hypothesis that carotid body chemoreceptor activation with hypoxic-hypercapnic blood elicits reflex coronary vasodilation was investigated. Circumflex or anterior descending coronary artery blood flow was measured in alpha-chloralose-anesthetized, closed-chest dogs. To minimize changes in cardiac metabolism, the heart was paced at a constant rate after atrioventricular heart block, propranolol (1 mg/kg) was given to prevent beta-receptor-mediated alterations in cardiac contractility, and aortic blood pressure was stabilized by means of a blood reservoir. The carotid body regions were vascularly isolated and perfused at constant pressure with arterial blood or hypoxic-hypercapnic blood. Under these conditions, carotid body chemoreceptor stimulation with hypoxic or hypoxic-hypercapnic blood for 90 s produced atrial bradycardia and a transient increase in coronary blood flow of 36-53% above prestimulation values. The augmented coronary flow was accompanied by a transient increase in coronary sinus O2 tension of 4.6-5.7 mmHg. Aortic blood pressure varied less than 10 mmHg. Intracarotid injections of nicotine (0.1 microgram/kg) or cyanide (150 micrograms) produced similar results. The coronary response to chemoreceptor stimulation with hypoxic blood or drugs was abolished when the reflex arc was interrupted with atropine (0.5 mg/kg). It is concluded that transient reflex parasympathetic coronary vasodilation is elicited by hypoxic or hypoxic-hypercapnic stimulation of carotid body chemoreceptors.

Alterations in cardiac contractility during classical aversive conditioning in dogs: methodological and theoretical implications.

ABSTRACTAn investigation of sympathetic influences on the heart was undertaken in dogs using classical aversive conditioning procedures. For this purpose, heart rate and cardiac contractile changes were measured, the latter using techniques assessing the rate of change or slope at which either the muscles of the left ventricle contract, or blood is accelerated in the ascending aorta, or the pulse pressure wave ascends from diastole to systole. Sympathetic influences were found to be more clearly manifest in contractile rather than heart rate changes as indicated by the greater attenuating influence of beta‐adrenergic blockade on anticipatory and unconditioned responses. Anticipatory sympathetic influences on the heart were commonly acute, becoming minimal upon repeated exposure to the aversive procedures. The rate of change or slope measures appear to detect sensitively extrinsic sympathetic influences on contractility. They are minimally influenced by intrinsic effects on contractility such as heart rate as well as non‐contractile events such as diastolic blood pressure. The slope of the ascending limb of the pulse pressure wave appears to offer a means of assessing contractility in human Ss.