Almohad Period Research Articles

One catastrophic flood every millennium: Synchronicity of extreme floods and global warm periods in the multi-archive record of the Roman theatre of Guadix (Granada, SE Spain)

Past global changes are typically registered in both natural (e.g., geologic-geomorphological, atmospheric-climatic, hydrologic-glacial and biological) and cultural records (e.g., archaeological, historical and documentary sources). Nevertheless, there are few sites in the world where sedimentary and archaeological evidence combine to provide information about two or more past millennial climate changes. In this regard, the Roman city of Guadix (Granada, SE Spain) represents a singular location, whose Roman theatre (1st century CE), recently discovered in 2007, contains palaeo-flood evidences that can be related to the two latest global warm periods: the Roman and Medieval epochs.In this research, detailed geological analyses are carried out. These analyses consisted in careful descriptions of vertical stratigraphic sections (lithology, structures…) and lateral correlation panels; as well as fluvial facies models to interpret the sedimentary environments for each sequence. This sedimentological information was combined with the study of archaeological remains, radiocarbon dating and optically stimulated luminescence, and three major flood events have been identified: two of them dating back to the beginning of the 1st century CE (period of the Pax Romana Empire); and the other occurring at the end of the 12th century (Islamic Almohad period). Such extreme hydrological events were synchronous with two warm periods: the Roman Climatic Optimum and the Medieval Warm Period. This seems to suggest that the meteorological fluctuations associated to climate changes during warming periods (such as the current one associated with present-day climate change) very likely produce such extraordinary or extreme events, which can mobilise large amounts of solid load (sands, silts and clays) and trigger sudden changes in the configuration of the river system (channel avulsions, meander cut-offs and captures among tributaries) and alluvial fans (at tributary mouths).We believe that the documented observations provide an analogy for the current warming period. In this regard, flood risk management in the current city of Guadix, whose hazard and risk maps were drawn up according to the criteria of the European Flood Directive, should take into account: (i) the millennial recurrent character of catastrophic floods in Guadix, well above the 500-year return period officially considered; (ii) the importance of the mobilisation of solid load in flood hazard and risk, which can obstruct drains and reduce the capacity of channels and bridges; (iii) the geomorphological dynamics, capable of modifying the position of the channels and thus the delimitation of hazard and risk zones; (iv) the role of non-permanent tributaries of the Guadix River during storms and heavy rain, related to quasi-stationary convective cells. Only in this way, will flood hazard and risk maps be useful in territorial and urban planning, civil protection during emergencies and the reduction of damage from future catastrophic floods. The present study highlights how geoarchaeological and palaeo-environmental records can be a highly valuable source of data for the improvement of flood hazard assessments in the 21st Century.

From Ashʿarism to waḥda muṭlaqa in Andalusī Sufism: A Survey of Historical Sources on the Shūdhiyya

Abstract The Shūdhiyya is a Sufi strand that flourished in the south-east region of al-Andalus, particularly in the area of Murcia, in the late 6th/12th century until the second half of the 7th/13th century. It thus extended from the second half of the Almohad period to the early Naṣrid period. The Shūdhiyya is named after the enigmatic figure, al-Shūdhī (fl. 6th/12th c.), a Sufi saint linked to Tlemcen. Nevertheless, the two main figures of the Shūdhiyya were the theologians and Sufis, Ibn al-Marʾa (d. 611/1214) and Ibn Aḥlā (d. 645/1247). Faced with the advance of Christian forces in the region of Murcia, Shūdhīs relocated to the nascent kingdom of Granada and to the central Islamicate world where, as followers of Ibn Sabʿīn (d. 669/1270), they were known as the Sabʿīniyya. The Shūdhiyya flourished in al-Andalus at roughly the same time that Ibn ʿArabī (d. 638/1240) lived in al-Andalus. And, like Ibn ʿArabī, the Shūdhiyya ultimately came to be known for espousing the unity of existence although in a more radical, absolute way. Even though intellectual Sufism in al-Andalus is mostly associated with Ibn ʿArabī, his actual influence on his contemporaries in al-Andalus was rather scarce as he emigrated in his thirties to the East where he wrote his main works. However, in the field of intellectual Sufism, the Shūdhiyya was far more influential in al-Andalus than Ibn ʿArabī. Nevertheless, since the main representatives of the Andalusī Shūdhiyya did not relocate to the East, their works were not widely disseminated across the eastern and central Islamicate world and, consequently, except for Ibn al-Marʾa, most of their works are not known to be extant. Thus, the main witnesses are biographical and polemical literature. Despite the historical and intellectual relevance of the Shūdhiyya for the social, political and intellectual history of al-Andalus, only Massignon has devoted some attention to this Sufi strand. In this article the available sources on the Shūdhiyya in al-Andalus are surveyed and contextualized.

The Almohads and the “Qur’anization” of War Narrative and Ritual

The Almohad movement (12th–13th centuries, Islamic West) had in the return to the direct study of the primary sources of Islam—the Qur’an and the Sunna—and in jihād, two of its most important pillars of legitimation and action. In this sense, it is an ideal period to study how both realities—Qur’an and jihād—were linked in a given historical context. During the Almohad period, the use of Qur’anic verses in accounts related to war episodes became widespread. We thus witness a “Qur’anization” of the war narrative, a resource adding greater religiosity and spirituality to the context of jihād, to its elaboration and discursive representation, and to its memory and remembrance through written testimonies. In this paper I study, through the main narrative and documentary sources of the period, how the Qur’an was inserted into and adapted to the Almohad war discourse. Likewise, this approach allows me to explore how the Qur’an came to life within the framework of the Almohad jihād, how it served for its justification and legitimation, and how it formed part of the ceremony and the war protocol of the Maghrebi caliphate, thus linking itself with other discursive and propaganda mechanisms such as architecture or military parades.

Landscape and fuel management in the context of prehistoric and historical occupations of Cova des Moro (Manacor, Mallorca, Spain)

In this paper, the first results of charcoal analyses carried out at Cova des Moro (Manacor, Mallorca, Spain) are presented. This cave is an archaeological but also palaeontological site that provides information on endemic fauna (the extinct caprine Myotragus balearicus) before the arrival of humans and, later, the relationship between the first farmers and the landscape. Several human occupations in the cave have been documented, from the Chalcolithic (end of the 3rd millennium cal BC), the Bronze Age (2nd millennium cal BC) and, finally, the Almohad period (13th century AD), during which the cave was used for different purposes.The first results of charcoal analyses at Cova des Moro provide information about the natural plant communities exploited by humans for comparison with later sequences, enabling us to evaluate how humans managed this territory over time. The results point to the exploitation of Mediterranean woodlands with wild olive (Olea europaea), mastic (Pistacia lentiscus), green olive tree (Phillyrea), Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), juniper (Juniperus) and rockrose species (Cistus), among others; these taxa would become the main elements of Mallorca's coastal landscape in later times, and it has been proven that they would already have been present as the island's natural flora at the time humans arrived there.

Traducciones entre el árabe y el beréber en época almohade: referencias históricas

En este trabajo se estudian las referencias históricas a las traducciones entre el árabe y el beréber de la época almohade. Se señalan y analizan todos los datos que ha sido posible recopilar, y se realiza también un somero recorrido por los antecedentes de esta actividad en el territorio magrebí. Las traducciones árabe beréber del periodo almohade y el uso oficial de esta última lengua deben considerarse en el contexto de la islamización y reforma promovida por la dinastía, acción que se debió debilitar o pudo desaparecer con los últimos soberanos. En las valoraciones finales en torno a la traducción se busca dar respuesta a las incógnitas sobre la naturaleza y la función de esas traducciones.

Levantamiento arquitectónico y análisis arqueológico del castillo de Píñar como punto de partida para su conservación

<p>This paper presents an applied methodology for the graphic documentation, analysis and criteria determination for the protection and conservation of built heritage. One of the main risks when restoring medieval rammed earth architecture is the lacking of an optimal graphic base of its structures. This paper’s main objective is the holistic knowledge of the Píñar fortress (Granada), analysis the building sequence from an archaeological perspective, and performing a rigorous 3D survey of its structures as a fundamental procedure. This survey was carried out applying the new technologies in graphic documentation: Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)-based multi-image photogrammetry and Structure-from-Motion (SfM) processing. The new systems of aerial three-dimensional (3D) capture and representation are changing the paradigm in the architectural heritage documentation, being much more efficient and precise. This high-quality documentation is fundamental for the archaeological research of the fortress’ building sequence, remarkably easing research as well as results dissemination. The constructive techniques and building sequence study made with archaeological methodology has revealed the complex historical evolution of Píñar fortress, since it was built in the Almohad period, with important transformations in Nasrid and Castilian periods. These alterations in such a narrow span of time shed light on the importance of this fortification in the border organization in the Late Middle Ages. The experimentation with Building Information Modelling (BIM) tools applied to heritage (HBIM) is showing its great potential in processing data linked to conceptual models, integrating graphic documentation with archaeological and historical interpretation. Nevertheless, the complexity of historical buildings and the hard work of manual modelling are making its wider use in archaeology difficult. The BIM model of Píñar fortress has been enriched with data such as type of material, building technique, chronology, pathologies and modifications, differentiating the historical phases with specific colours to make its identification easier. Its aim is to acquire a better knowledge of the fortress historical evolution, thus allowing the creation of conservation and protection strategies. The holistic knowledge of a building is a complex task that requires the work of different professionals. The ones in charge of the graphic documentation must know the survey objectives and the needs of the rest of the team. The current and future management of heritage requires professionals working on conservation with updated skills in digital technologies. The results of public heritage research with these technologies should be in open access platforms to be used by all researchers and professionals that could need them.</p>

Evidence for the Ayyūbid Iqṭāʿ in Ifrīqiyya and a Reconsideration of the Almohad Iqṭāʿ

ABSTRACT This study begins with an overview of the Ayyūbid system of iqṭāʿ and its characteristics, followed by a review of the current state of scholarship on the Almohad iqṭāʿ system. Then some key primary-source passages concerning the Almohad iqṭāʿ are analysed in depth. The problem of the relation of the Almohad grantee (muqṭaʿ) to his estate is particularly focused on, and evidence is presented which suggests that the Almohad and Ḥafṣid grantees directly exploited and administered their estates without the intermediary role of the state, as was the case in the Mashriq under the Ayyūbids. Then evidence is presented from a neglected source, which shows that the Ayyūbid iqṭāʿ system was applied in Ifrīqiyya (western Libya and Tunisia) during the occupation of that region by Sharaf al-Dīn Qarāqūsh and the Ghuzz (Ayyūbid soldiers) in the 1180s. Following their defeat by the Almohads, the Ghuzz were employed in the Almohad army and some of them attained high rank. It is suggested that the Ayyūbid occupation of Ifrīqiyya, and the subsequent presence of the Ghuzz in the Almohad military apparatus may have had some influence on the development of the iqṭāʿ in the Almohad and post-Almohad periods.

Restructuring of A Walled Enclosure Almohade to an Urban Universally Accessible Area: The Historical City of Cáceres

This article presents the results of an investigation of the current urban accessibility in the within-walls area of the historical complex of the city of Cáceres, included by UNESCO in 1986 on the World Heritage List. The construction of the wall dates back from the 12th century, during the Almohad period in Hizn Qazris. By that time, it was a strategic location for the conquest of Christian territory in the Iberian Peninsula. This enclosure was reinforced with towers and defensive bastions, which, together with the orography, elevated on a tableland, conferred an urban space protected of possible invaders. The study model is based on the comparison of that original city, which today remains as a true reflection of the originally planned, with the legislation on urban accessibility and its “true adaptation” to the significant points of public urban itineraries within the walled city. To develop the research, the data from the geographical information system of the City Council of Cáceres has been used. This implies its heritage databases, architectural settings, street slope maps and other significant factors, for their functional understanding as a model of historical city adapted to the present. The technical-administrative bureaucracy and the preservation of the historical-artistic heritage need to coexist in a close relationship with the City’s will of promotion of its patrimonial tourism as a means of funding to preserve the old part as a whole (both in terms of architecture and urban structure). Implemented actions and proposals for future interventions submitted to the competent bodies for approval are presented, applying a model of urban accessibility promotion to try to achieve actual universal accessibility for all types of users. Obviously, very often, the existing conditions set important limitations but, even without reaching regulatory compliance, could undoubtedly improve the critical points detected.

Andalusi Populations at La Dehesilla Cave (Sierra de Cádiz, Southern Iberia): An Interdisciplinary Approach to their Rural Economic Systems

Few studies have dealt with the occupation of caves during the Andalusi period in Southern Iberia. This may be explained by the attention placed traditionally on the trinomial mudun (cities), ?us?n (fortresses) and qura (farmsteads), in which other forms of rural occupation have been generally overlooked. In this paper we explore the sequence at La Dehesilla Cave –based on the analysis of animal skeleton remains, pollen, seeds and fruits, and phytoliths- with the aim to define the economic systems of its Andalusi inhabitants. Because the sequence displays two different occupation phases, the first during the Taifa Period in the second half of the 11th century and the second during the Almohad Period in the second half of the 12th century, this study characterises the ecological and economic systems of the two periods and highlights the differences between them. The data suggest that the economy of both periods was mainly based on livestock, and especially on sheep herds. Nevertheless, the comparison between them enables us to observe a few significant differences that indicate dissimilar behavioural and economic patterns. Plant macro-remains show a larger amount of cereals and leguminous seeds, as well as of domestic fruits, in the Taifa Period than in the Almohad Period. The zoological record displays clear differences between the two periods. The Taifa Period shows a greater proportion of herds while the input from hunting increased in the Almohad Period. Also, there are proportionally opposite patterns in the age of sacrifice of sheep. The earlier period may correspond to a more sedentary herding and partly farming population, while the second period to a mainly herding, perhaps mobile, population. These results are discussed within the political dynamics of the historical framework of the surrounding territory, and contribute to the knowledge of the rural economic dynamics of the Andalusi period.

El sistema defensivo almohade del interior del Šarq al-Andalus frente a los cristianos. Origen, reestructuración y paralelos del sistema fronterizo de Albacete y Sur de Valencia (s. XII)

Se enuncian las principales características de los dos tipos de sistemas de control y defensa en al-Andalus: El sistema defensivo de control vial extendido en época omeya (ss. VIII-X) y el posterior sistema defensivo de carácter reticular implantado en la época almohade (s. XII). Se dedica especial atención a describir la frontera almohade en el norte de la Mancha Oriental e interior de Valencia. En este aspecto es esencial la crónica de Ibn Ṣāhib al-Ṣalā (m. 1182) titulada Al-Mann bi-l-imāma en que se describe cómo el califa almohade Abū Ya’qūb Yūsuf, a su regreso de la Campaña de Huete del 167 H./1172 e.C., durante su estancia en Murcia, tras recibir la sumisión de Ibn Mardanīš a la causa almohade, procede a la reforma administrativa y de las fronteras del Šarq al-Andalus. Se concluye que Ibn Mardanīš, tras su sumisión, les cede a los almohades esta frontera. Finalmente se aportan los datos de las circunscripciones administrativas almohades de la Mancha Oriental: Chinchilla, Villena, Peñas de San Pedro, sistema defensivo del Júcar, Alcaraz y Segura de la Sierra. Para concluir, se enuncia una lógica geopolítica para la conquista castellana de La Mancha Oriental y Murcia.

Análisis arqueológico de la torre-puerta de la alcazaba de Guadix (Granada)

Este artículo tiene como objetivo realizar el análisis de la secuencia constructiva de la torre-puerta de la alcazaba medieval de Guadix (Granada). Para ello, se efectuó un levantamiento tridimensional de la estructura mediante fotogrametría, una lectura estratigráfica de paramentos en profundidad y una caracterización de técnicas constructivas. Esto nos ha permitido comprobar que la torre-puerta tiene una compleja evolución histórica, lo que hace posible comprender mejor la historia de la alcazaba accitana desde su erección en época zirí hasta la actualidad, con importantes transformaciones en época almohade, nazarí, castellana y contemporánea.

Ibn Rušd al-Ḥafīd (Averroes) y su exilio a Lucena: orígenes judíos, genealogía y conversión forzosa

La acusación de orígenes judíos formulada contra Ibn Rušd al-Ḥafīd (Averroes) cuando fue exilado a Lucena es analizada teniendo en cuenta acusaciones similares formuladas contra otros andalusíes durante los periodos almorávide y almohade, así como las representaciones islámicas de los judíos en las que estos a menudo son descritos como agentes de herejías foráneas. También se analiza la influencia del contexto de sospecha y ansiedad creado por la conversión forzosa de los judíos que tuvo lugar en la primera época almohade en la formulación de esas acusaciones.

Abū Muḥammad b. al-Qurṭubī versus Abū ʿAlī al-Rundī: An Andalusī Polemic on the Modes of Transmission of the Qur'an

This contribution deals with Abū ʿAlī al-Rundī's (d. 616/1219) refutation of Abū Muḥammad b. al-Qurṭubī's (d. 611/1214) views on the modes of transmission of the Qur'an and the qirāʾāt (‘variant readings’). It is the last in a series of texts on this topic included by Aḥmad al-Wansharīsī (d. 914/1509) in his famous fatwā collection, al-Miʿyār al-muʿrib. The two Andalusī scholars had similar academic profiles and vied for recognition as the foremost authority on Qur'an readings in Malaga, which during the Almohad period was home to a large number of eminent ʿulamāʾ. Asked whether he thought that the Qur'an, in its variant readings, should be transmitted with an isnād, from one person to the next, Ibn al-Qurṭubī had apparently replied in the affirmative. In the text under discussion, al-Rundī aims to destroy the arguments of his arch-rival, whom he describes in scathing terms. He argues that the Qur'an has always been transmitted through tawātur (that is, by a multitude of trustworthy people) which alone guarantees sound knowledge. The refutation not only reflects the state of Qur'anic Studies in al-Andalus at the time, but also the acrimonious relations between two important scholars.

Transformations in medieval Fez: Almoravid hydraulic system and changes in the Almohad walls

ABSTRACTDuring the Almoravid and Almohad periods, Fez acquired a great importance which was materialised in a great number of constructions and transformations in the town. The aim of this paper is to discuss the significance of these medieval works and their importance in the development of Fez between the 11th and 13th centuries. In this way, we analyze two samples of these works: the Almoravid hydraulic system built by Yūsuf Ibn Tāšufīn, including the ‘water dispenser’ of Būjlūd, and the Almohad transformations in the military constructions of Fez, especially the defensive system of Bāb Sāgma. Beyond a brief historical introduction of the city during the Almoravid and Almohad periods, a section about written and archaeological sources and the detailed description of both constructions, we have included a discussion section with the interpretation of the main reasons why the Almoravids and Almohads developed this kind of works in the town. This fact was related to religious and political reasons, deeply connected to the ideas of control, power and exaltation of governors of both dynasties. Moreover, we include the analysis of the type of decoration known as ‘false bonding’ (falso despiece) that appears in the complex of Bāb Sāgma. For the presence of this ornamentation, typically used during the Almohad period, as well as for the references of the written sources, we propose a revision of the traditional Merinid chronology suggested for this military construction.

Long-term History in a Moroccan Oasis Zone: The Middle Draa Project 2015

AbstractThis article describes the research questions and presents the initialamsdates of the Middle Draa Project (southern Morocco), a collaborative field survey project between the University of Leicester and the Institut National des Sciences de l’Archéologie et du Patrimoine (insap) of Morocco. Starting from a very low baseline of past archaeological research in this pre-desert valley, the overall objective of the project is to establish the extent, character and chronology of the rich archaeology of the Wadi Draa. The results presented here detail a hitherto unknown phase of major occupation in the Draa in the 4th-6th centuriesadevidenced by complex hilltop settlements and extensive cairn cemeteries (an initial typology is presented). A second medieval phase comprised major urban centres that are contemporary with the Almoravid and Almohad periods of Moroccan history. Alongside these urban centres, there are the remains of substantial mudbrick oasis settlements and irrigation and field-systems of a contemporary date. A key contribution of this paper concerns the construction of an outline chronology based upon initial analysis of the ceramics collected, but crucially supplemented and supported by a major program ofamsdating. The remote sensing and field survey data collected by the project enable us to develop some hypotheses concerning the long-term history of this important oasis valley.

Estudo de espólio cerâmico proveniente do interior de uma habitação almóada da alcáçova de Alcácer do Sal (Portugal)

Dá-se a conhecer um conjunto de cerâmicas, datáveis entre a segunda metade do século XII e primeira metade do XIII, exumadas no interior de uma habitação, entre os anos de 1993-1997, no decorrer de intervenções arqueológicas realizadas no Convento de Nossa Senhora de Aracoeli (anterior alcáçova muçulmana) em Alcácer do Sal e que permitiram datar aquele espaço do Período Almóada.

Islamic ceramics in Portugal found at Silves Castle (8th to 13th c.): An archaeometric characterization

Silves Castle is located in the Algarve, South of Portugal. Archaeological excavations provided numerous remains of the Islamic presence in this area from the 8th to the 13th c., which could be traced back to the Ommiad, Caliphal, Taifa, Almoravid and Almohad periods. The spectroscopic study of the ceramics, enabled us to discuss their provenance and production techniques.A clear difference in the diffraction patterns of the sherds from the Ommiad period (8th to 9th c.), and the Caliphal period (10th–11th c.) was observed, pointing to imported ceramics in both groups, the latter most likely from Medinat al-Zahra. The origin of the Ommiad ceramics still remains controversial. The samples from the Taifa kingdoms (11th c. period) were characterized as Lisbon productions. The blue and white ceramics studied here (12th–13th c.) are most probably the first samples showing the use of cobalt blue onto a white tin oxide layer made in Portugal.

Faunal Remains from an Almohad (Ad XII/XIII) Silo at the Castle of Aljezur (Portugal)

Se presenta el estudio de un conjunto faunístico recogido en un silo del castillo de Aljezur en época Almohade (siglos XII/XIII d.C.). Se atestigua una notable actividad cinegética centrada sobre el conejo con aportes secundarios de ciervos, jabalíes y lince ibérico. Las evidencias pecuarias, centradas sobre caprinos y con équidos y gallinas como grupos secundarios, son marginales. Se asume que el perro actuó como auxiliar de caza y no tanto en la vigilancia de rebaños. En el caso de los macromamíferos, con excepción hecha del lince, las evidencias apuntan al consumo de la carne. El gato probablemente representó un animal de compañía en tanto que la presencia de lince se justificaría por su interés peletero. Tanto los équidos como el galápago parecen representar elementos de consumo. Frente a ellos, los restos de roedores representan animales comensales en tanto que los de sapo del género Bufo representan intrusivos

Caracterización constructiva de las fábricas de tapia en las fortificaciones almohades del antiguo Reino de Sevilla

Most of the Andalusian earthen heritage corresponds to military rammed earth buildings set up between XII and XV centuries. Those corresponding to the Ancient Reign of Seville are the most outstanding group, in which a great number of them have been restored during the last decades. This research aims to state, analyze and assess the main technical and dimensional features of rammed earth walls in this area at the Almohad period. This research is focused on three objectives: provide guidelines in order to assure more consistent and respectful heritage restorations, advance the understanding of historical uses of this constructive technique and state hypothesis about walls of uncertain origin. To that end an assessment methodology proposed by the authors will be implemented.

Judicial pluralism under the “Berber empires” (last quarter of the 11th century C.E. – first half of the 13th century C.E.)

Abstract: This article deals with judicial pluralism under the rule of the Almoravids and the Almohads. Both dynasties deserve to be considered jointly in a study of the judiciary in the pre-modern Islamic West. Given their close association with Mālikism, the Almoravids created a scenario apt for the Mālikī fuqahā’ to improve the position of qāḍī‑s vis-a-vis governmental judges. Conversely, qāḍī‑s are believed to have been deprived of a significant part of their powers and independence as a consequence of Almohad legal policy, which jeopardized Mālikism’s predominance and control over the judiciary. This article is organized into three parts : (1) a diachronic overview of the specificities of the judiciary in al‑Andalus and the Far Maghrib ; (2) the Almoravids’ judicial policy and the jurists’ counter-reaction ; (3) dialectics between rulers and Mālikī qāḍī‑s in the Almohad period. The aim is to test whether textual evidence and previous research still support the idea that both periods mark a peak and a bottom respectively in the Mālikīs’ position with political power, and therefore, in the balance of forces between qāḍī‑s and governmental judges.