Alexandrian Laurel Research Articles

Extraction of Coumarin Mixture from Tamanu Oil using Food-Grade

Indonesia’s flora and fauna are divided into four significant ecosystems: freshwater (rivers and lakes), marine, semi-terrestrial (mangrove and riparian), and terrestrial. Tamanu (Calophyllum inophyllum) is a member of the mangrove-associated plant species belonging to the mangosteen family. It is also known as Alexandrian laurel, bintangur (Malaysia), Borneo-mahogany, polanga (India), and nyamplung (Indonesia). The tamanu seed can produce oil with a 60-75% yield. It is applicable to treat various skin problems, including eczema, psoriasis, herpes, acne, haemorrhoids, and certain allergies. It is also beneficial as an antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-HIV, anti-inflammation, and anticoagulant agent. This is because tamanu oil contains bioactive compounds named coumarin. Previous works isolated coumarins with toxic solvents and using methods that are hard to scale up. Therefore, this study aims to know the best concentration of food-grade ethanol, the number of stages, and the solvent system to extract crude coumarin mixtures from tamanu oil by batchwise solvent extraction. The free fatty acid and triglyceride removal was also studied. The initial contents of free fatty acid, coumarin mixture, and triglyceride in tamanu oil were 25.87%, 11.96%, and 51.16%, respectively. Tamanu oil was extracted simultaneously with binary solvents (n-hexane and 70%/80%/90% aqueous food-grade ethanol) and a single solvent (96% food-grade ethanol). Each fraction was analysed by Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) and High Temperature-Gas Chromatography (HT-GC). The best result was obtained using 80% aqueous food-grade ethanol, eight extraction stages, and a binary solvent system, which produced 48.64±6.57% purity and 88.68±1.38% recovery of coumarin mixture. Moreover, it was found that the method removed 64.15% of free fatty acid and 99.96% of triglyceride from the crude tamanu oil after eight stages of batchwise extraction.

Diet Analysis of Sympatric Colobine Monkeys from Bako National Park, Sarawak, Borneo

Habitat quality and abundant of food resources are among the key factors influencing the continued existence of primates in the wild. Although much has been studied on primate habitats and their diets, little is known about the nutritional value of the colobines’ foods. This study aimed to assess the dietary nutrient compositions of two sympatric colobine monkeys, Trachypithecus cristatus and Nasalis larvatus, in Bako National Park using proximate analysis of faecal, leaf and fruit samples of eight dominant tree species in Bako NP. Five nutrient parameters, namely crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre, ash, phosphorus, and energy content, were choosen to assess the nutritional demands of the monkeys in the wild. The faecal samples showed significantly higher percentage of crude fibre (27.58%) in N. larvatus compared to T. cristatus. In contrast, crude fat (8.52%), ash content (1.79%) and phosphorus (5.76 mg/g) were found to be significantly higher in the faecal samples of T. cristatus than in N. larvatus. The nutrient composition of leaves samples from the tree species consumed by N. larvatus and T. cristatus showed a significantly higher percentage of crude protein (14.56%) in Barringtonia asiatica (sea poison tree) and higher ash (13.70%) in Morinda citrifolia (Indian mulberry). Meanwhile, nutrient composition in fruit samples showed highest percentage of crude fibre (32.58%) and crude fat (12.35%) in Calophyllum inophyllum (Alexandrian laurel), whereas higher phosphorus (5.76%) and energy (24.26 KJ) were recorded in Ceriops tagal (Yellow mangrove). The higher crude fiber detected in N. larvatus’ faecal samples compared to T. cristatus may indicates that N. larvatus experiences lower digestibility as they are incapable of completely digesting the tough leaves or fruits. This study provides useful information for the conservation and management of these primate species especially on their dietary requirements in captivity or in a new habitat.

Comparative analysis of combustion and heat release characteristics of Alexandrian Laurel methyl ester fueled VCR DI diesel engine

This work explores the comparative analysis of some important characteristics related to combustion and heat release of a four stroke diesel engine, using Alexandrian Laurel methyl ester. The diesel-methyl ester blends were in the ratio of 05:95, 10:90, 15:85, 20:80, 25:75, and 30:70 by volume and were designated as AL05, AL10, AL15, AL20, AL25, and AL30, respectively. Under steady state conditions, the experimentation was carried out at constant speed. The characteristics such as cylinder pressure, rate of pressure rise, mass fraction burned, heat release rate, cumulative heat release, and mean gas temperature of methyl ester blends were studied. Higher maximum cylinder pressures were observed for methyl ester blends. The mass fraction burned was better for the AL20 blend, but with an increase in methyl ester concentration, the mass fraction burned decreased. The heat release rate of diesel at all compression ratios was found to be the maximum compared to methyl ester blends. The combustion and heat release characteristics indicate that Alexandrian Laurel methyl ester has the properties that make it an attainable additive to conventional fossil diesel.

Alexandrian Laurel for Biodiesel Production and its Biodiesel Blends on Performance, Emission and Combustion Characteristics in Common-Rail Diesel Engine

A two-step transesterification process was employed in the biodiesel production from non-edible Alexandrian Laurel. The key physicochemical properties of the Alexandrian Laurel biodiesel (ALB), diesel and blends of both fuels were compared and analyzed. The effects of blending biodiesel (ALB) and petroleum diesel on engine performance, combustion and exhaust emissions were investigated in a turbocharged, high-pressure common-rail diesel engine under six different speed operations and at full load conditions. The test fuels comprised a conventional diesel fuel and four different fuel blends of ALB. The results showed relatively close physicochemical properties of ALB and its blends when compared with petroleum diesel. However, the use of ALB-blended fuel resulted in penalties engine brake power, brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) despite slightly improved brake thermal efficiency (BTE). Brake specific nitrogen oxide (BSNOx) was found worsened with higher ALB content in the blends. Nonetheless, consistent improvements in brake specific carbon monoxide (BSCO), brake specific carbon dioxide (BSCO2), and smoke were noticed when ALB blends were used. Additionally, ALB blends contributed to reduction in peak combustion pressure, peak heat release rate (HRR) and combustion duration. In general, the findings suggest satisfactory operation with ALB biodiesel-diesel blends in an unmodified diesel engine.

Assessment of antioxidant impact on fuel stability and emission personality for Alexandrian laurel and Poison nut biodiesel

The chief criterion for non commercialization of biodiesel is the unbalanced fuel properties and poisonous NOx emission level in elevated quantity. But in the case of marketable petrol and diesel fuels, the fuel properties are in much steady state leading to extended fuel stability without putrefying in fuel properties and lower NOx emission level. The difference between the stability capacities is the reaction of fuels to the atmospheric oxygen. Obviously biodiesel contains oxygen content in superior quantity, as the feedstock is the naturally available resources when compared to fossil fuels. The present attempt has been focused to stable the fuel properties by evaluating the oxidation, storage and thermal stability of Alexandrian laurel and Poison nut biodiesel with the assist of Tert-butyl hydroquinone antioxidant at 1000 ppm, in the subsequent ratios as AP10T, AP15T, AP20T, AP25T and AP30T using high-tech equipments. FTIR infers the stability variation with the aid of C–H and O–H bonds in the fuel blends. In adding up with that, the relationship between NOx emission and cylinder head temperature has been made through novel Fluke thermal imager. As a result, AP20T shows supreme fuel stability and NOx emission nearer to commercial diesel fuel.

<i>In vitro</i> growth-inhibitory activity of <i>Calophyllum inophyllum</i> ethanol leaf extract against diarrhoea-causing bacteria

Purpose: To investigate the in vitro growth-inhibitory effect of Calophyllum inophyllum, a medicinal plant traditionally used to cure gastrointestinal disorders caused by diarrhoea-causing bacteria.Methods: The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of C. inophyllum ethanol leaf extract was determined against six diarrhoea-causing bacteria, namely, Clostridium difficile infant, Clostridium perfringens, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella enterica. The effect of the plant extract on bacterial growth kinetics was further evaluated by slightly modified broth microdilution method.Results: The plant extract showed significant inhibitory activity against C. perfringens and L. monocytogenes (MIC = 128 μg/mL) followed by C. difficile (MIC = 512 μg/mL). Monitored growth curves also showed that the plant extract at ½ MIC inhibits bacterial growth by distinct extension of the lag phase or suppression of the whole growth rate in C. difficile and L. monocytogenes, respectively.Conclusion: These results demonstrate the significant anti-clostridial and anti-listerial activities of C. inophyllum ethanol leaf extract. Thus, the extract seems to be a promising material for the development of new antibacterial agents.Keywords: Calophyllum inophyllum, Alexandrian laurel, Intestinal infections, Antibacterial activity, Anticlostridial, Anti-listerial

Biodiesel synthesis from Calophyllum inophyllum oil with different supercritical fluids

Biodiesel or fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) is primarily synthesized using edible vegetable oils and methanol with a catalyst. However, in the present study, FAMEs were synthesized from a non-edible oil (Calophyllum inophyllum also called as sura honne, Punnagam, Alexandrian Laurel) in different supercritical fluids: methanol (MeOH), methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), methyl acetate (MeOAc) and dimethyl carbonate (DMC) non-catalytically. Reactions were performed from 523K to 673K at 30MPa with a molar ratio of 40:1 with times varying from 3min to 3h. Conversions higher than 80% were obtained within 30min for oil reaction with MeOH and DMC at 623K and conversions of 60% and 70% were obtained at 673K with MeOAc and MTBE, respectively. Pseudo first order kinetics was used to obtain the rate constants and the activation energies followed the order: EMeOH<EDMC<EMeOAc<EMTBE.

Synthesis and characterizations of sustainable polyester polyols from non-edible vegetable oils: Thermal and structural evaluation

Vegetable oils are extensively used as a renewable raw material for the synthesis of polymers. These oils are transformed into polyol by different techniques. Among these, glycerolysis is an eco-friendly and widely used method for the production of polyol. In this process, solvent free glycerolysis of two non-edible vegetable oils, such as Chaulmoogra oil (C-Oil) and Alexandrian Laurel seed oil (A-Oil) was performed. An environment-friendly heterogeneous base catalyst, CaO was used for the transesterification reaction. The physico-chemical properties of the oils and bio-polyols (C-Polyol and A-Polyol), such as hydroxyl number, acid number, and density were determined. The hydroxyl value was found to be 189 and 200 mg KOH/g for C-polyol and A-Polyol, respectively. The acid number of the oils was reduced after the glycerolysis. The formation of polyols was confirmed by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy (1H and 13CNMR), and Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC). Thermal characteristics of vegetable oils and the synthesized bio-polyol were assessed by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA). It was found that the synthesized polyols can be used for the production of biobased polymers, explicitly polyurethanes, polyesters, and epoxy.

Homogeneous catalysed biodiesel synthesis from Alexandrian Laurel (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) kernel oil using ortho-phosphoric acid as a pretreatment catalyst

ABSTRACTIn this study, a non-edible seed oil of Alexandrian Laurel (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) with higher free fatty acid content has been harnessed to produce biodiesel by transesterification process. The 20.2% free fatty acid (FFA) content was first reduced to 12.9% by using TOP degumming process. Ortho-phosphoric acid was used to esterify the refined kernel oil. Transesterification reaction was performed with NaOH as an alkaline catalyst and methanol as an analytical solvent. The effects of methanol to oil molar ratio (MR), catalyst concentration (CC), reaction temperature (TP), reaction time (TM), and stirrer speed (SS) on biodiesel conversion were studied to optimize the transesterification conditions using DOE- approach. The experimental study revealed that 9:1 MR, 0.8 wt.% CC, 60°C TP, 75 min TM and 1000 rpm SS were the optimal process control variables. The study indicated that CC was the most important control parameter in optimal methyl ester production. The optimal treatment combination yielded 97.14% of biodiesel. The profile of biodiesel was determined using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. 1H NMR spectrum of Calophyllum inophyllum methyl ester (CIME) has been reported. The properties of the biodiesel have been found within specifications of the ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 standards and hence could be considered as a suitable alternative to diesel fuel for sustainable circulation of carbon.

Seed attributes characterization and exploration of fatty acid composition in Calophyllum inophyllum L.

Thirty progenies of Calophyllum inophyllum L. commonly known as 'Undi' or 'Alexandrian laurel' werestudied for seed, oil quality as well as fatty acid profile. Among the progenies, only one progeny viz., FCRICI 14 consistently expressed superiority in all seed characteristics viz., pod length (3.95 cm), pod width (3.42 cm), seed length (2.71 cm), seed width (2.35 cm), 100-seed weight (536.26 g), germination per cent (73.00%), germination value (5.11), peak value (3.06) and oil content (55.60%). Three progenies viz., FCRICI 14 (Honnavara, Karnataka), FCRICI 2 (Nagapattinam, Tamil Nadu) and FCRICI 17 (Bhatkal, Karnataka) recorded higher oil content of 55.60, 52.33 and 51.43 per cent, respectively. The analysis of fatty acid composition revealed that the major fatty acid was oleic acid (56.42-68.25%) followed by palmitic acid (8.23-18.42%) and stearic acid (6.23 - 8.23%).

Impact of fatty acid composition and physicochemical properties of Jatropha and Alexandrian laurel biodiesel blends: An analysis of performance and emission characteristics

This experimental investigation deals with the effects of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) composition and the physicochemical properties of biodiesel on engine performance and emissions. FAME compositions have a considerable influence on the physical and chemical properties of biodiesel, such as density, viscosity, heating value, cetane number (CN), oxidation stability, and cold flow properties. The performance and emissions of a four-cylinder turbocharged diesel engine were studied under varying speeds and full load condition. For this investigation, 10% and 20% blends of Jatropha (Jatropha curcas), Alexandrian laurel (Calophyllum inophyllum), and palm biodiesels (JB, ALB, and PB, respectively) were used, and the results were compared with that of the B5 fuel (95% diesel and 5% palm biodiesel). The content of saturated fatty acid (methyl palmitate) for ALB and JB was found to be 23.3% and 20.4% higher respectively than that for PB. In total, PB showed 19.8% higher saturation than JB, while ALB showed 7.3% higher saturation than JB because of their higher content of longer chain saturated fatty acid (methyl stearate). The CNs of all three biodiesels increased with the increase of carbon chain length and saturation level, whereas iodine value and saponification value decreased with the increase of saturation level. An average of 2.8% and 4.5% brake power reduction were observed in the case of 10% and 20% biodiesel blends respectively. Brake specific fuel consumption increased in the range of 6%–20% compared with B5 fuel, whereas carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions decreased significantly. Nitrogen oxide emissions increased in the range of 9%–23% for the 10% and 20% biodiesel blends with respect to B5 fuel.

A comparative study of C4 and C5 alcohol treated diesel–biodiesel blends in terms of diesel engine performance and exhaust emission

Use of pure alcohols or alcohols blended with petroleum-based fossil fuel or biodiesel blends as engine fuel is an attractive alternative solution for internal combustion engines. This study conducted an experiments in a single cylinder, four-stroke, water-cooled, direct-injection diesel engine. Engine performance and emission characteristics of diesel–Alexandrian laurel biodiesel blends with 15 and 20vol.% of n-butanol (C4) and pentanol (C5) as blending components were investigated and compared under different speed conditions. Results show that brake power and brake specific fuel consumption of the engine using C4 and C5 alcohols mixed with biodiesel blends were improved greatly than that using biodiesel. The emissions of hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide were extremely reduced with increasing nitric oxide and carbon dioxide, but carbon dioxide decreased at maximum speed. Finally, it can be conclude that, C5 alcohol is preferred than C4 alcohol because of its elevated performance and emission.

Production of biodiesel from a non-edible source and study of its combustion, and emission characteristics: A comparative study with B5

This investigation deals with the production of Alexandrian laurel (Calophyllum inophyllum) biodiesel (ALB) and study of the effects of its fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) compositions and physicochemical properties on the engine performance, combustion, and emissions. The experiment had been conducted in a four cylinder turbocharged diesel engine under varying speeds and full loading condition. 10% (ALB10) and 20% (ALB20) blends of Alexandrian laurel biodiesel along with the Diesel and B5 fuel (95% diesel and 5% palm biodiesel) were used for this experiment. ALB consisted of 31.6% saturated and 68.4% unsaturated FAME. Longer chain fatty acids and 10.9% oxygen content of ALB greatly influenced the engine combustion and emission characteristics. Brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) was found on average 6%–20% higher for B5, ALB10, and ALB20 blends compared to diesel fuel. It was observed that ALB operation shortened the ignition delay period, increased the mass fraction burnt (MFB), and reduced the pick cylinder pressure, heat release rate (HRR) and combustion duration. CO and HC emissions were decreased significantly while operating on B5, ALB10, and ALB20 blends compared to diesel fuel. ALB blends produced on average, 2.5%–3% higher NOX emissions with respect to diesel fuel.

Effect of antioxidant on the oxidation stability and combustion–performance–emission characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with diesel–biodiesel blend

Alexandrian laurel or Calophyllum inophyllum oil is recently considered one of the most anticipated nonconsumable or nonedible biodiesel sources. An attempt has been made in this study to increase the oxidation stability and investigate the engine performance, emission, and combustion characteristics of a diesel engine by adding 1% (by vol.) of two antioxidants, such as 2,6-Di-tert.-butyl-4-methylphenol and 2,2′-methylenebis (4-methyl-6-tert-butylphenol), in higher percentages of C. inophyllum biodiesel (CB30) with diesel fuel (B0). The experiment was performed on a single-cylinder, water-cooled, direct-injection diesel engine for this purpose. The addition of both antioxidants increased the oxidation stability without significantly changing other physicochemical properties. Results also show that the antioxidants enhanced the start of combustion of biodiesel, which resulted in a short ignition delay. The peak pressure and the peak heat release rate during premixed combustion phase of pure CB30 and its modified blend with antioxidant were higher than those of B0. Both antioxidant blends showed higher brake power, higher brake thermal efficiency, and lower brake specific fuel consumption than pure CB30. Both antioxidants significantly reduced NOX emission; however, CO, HC, and smoke opacity were slightly higher than those of CB30. Based on this study, Alexandrian laurel or C. inophyllum biodiesel blend (CB30) with antioxidant can be used as an alternative fuel in a diesel engine without modifications.

Biodiesel production, characterization, engine performance, and emission characteristics of Malaysian Alexandrian laurel oil

This article studies the production and characterization of Malaysian Alexandrian laurel oil and the effect of common blends on engine performance and emissions.

In Vitro Propagation of Alexandrian Laurel (Danae racemosa L. Moench), a Valuable Ornamental Plant

To overcome the limitations of traditional propagation, this research was initiated to develop an alternative means for efficient production of Alexandrian laurel (Danae racemosa L. Moench). An in vitro propagation protocol has been developed for Danae racemosa L. Moench using seeds as a source of material for culture initiation. Seedlings were produced after seeds were cultured for 3 month on MS (Murashige and Skoog, 1962) medium. Shoot multiplication occurred on MS medium with or without 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) with 100% multiplication percentage. However, shoot number was significantly increased from an average of 2.8 to more than six with the addition of 5 or 25 μM BAP. Among two indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) treatments tested for rooting of seedlings, incorporation of 5 μM IBA in MS medium significantly increased rooting percentage to 86.4% compared with 71.2% without IBA. The greatest number of roots (three) was produced by 5-minute IBA pulse. However, both IBA treatments significantly reduced root length. The longest root (12.8 mm) was observed on MS medium without any IBA treatment and the shortest (6.1 mm) was produced by IBA pulse. In vitro-propagated plantlets grew well after transfer to a substrate of peat and pine bark (1:1) in the greenhouse. No morphological variation was observed.

Beauty Leaf (Calophyllum inophyllum L.), tree: a tree with great economic potential

Calophyllum inophyllum L. (Clusiaceae) commonly known as Alexandrian laurel or beauty leaf or Domba (in Sri Lanka) is essentially a littoral tree of the tropics, occurring above the high-tide mark along sea coasts of northern Australia and extending throughout Southeast Asia and southern India (Agroforesrey Database 2007).The tree is native to both Australia and Sri Lanka. For many years it has been used by indigenous communities and alternative medicine practitioners. It also has a high demand for its seed oil from cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. It is a high potential bio-diesel plant. Seed yields 65% oil from its dry weight 3744 kg/ha from 400 trees (Azam et al. 2005). It has the highest per tree oil yield from 75 plant species tested so far. It can be used in conventional diesel engines (without any alterations) in its pure form or as a blend with mineral oil (Agarwal 2006). It is also a durable multi-purpose timber (density 560-900kg/m³) (Timber Species Notes, DPI Queensland 2007).With recently discovered plant properties (anti-HIV and anti-cancer active compounds), Calophyllum inophyllum can be placed amongst the most important multi-purpose trees. This paper reviews various economically important uses and services of Calophyllum inophyllum L. and areas for future research. This also outlines an ongoing research project “Provenance variations in ecophysiology, growth, performance, seed oil and Calocoumarin-A (anti-cancer agent) content of Calophyllum inophyllum L.” that is being carried out in Queensland, Australia and in Sri Lanka.