Candlenut Research Articles

Independence of stem and leaf hydraulic traits in six Euphorbiaceae tree species with contrasting leaf phenology.

Hydraulic traits and hydraulic-related structural properties were examined in three deciduous (Hevea brasiliensis, Macaranga denticulate, and Bischofia javanica) and three evergreen (Drypetes indica, Aleurites moluccana, and Codiaeum variegatum) Euphorbiaceae tree species from a seasonally tropical forest in south-western China. Xylem water potential at 50% loss of stem hydraulic conductivity (P50stem) was more negative in the evergreen tree, but leaf water potential at 50% loss of leaf hydraulic conductivity (P50leaf) did not function as P50stem did. Furthermore, P50stem was more negative than P50leaf in the evergreen tree; contrarily, this pattern was not observed in the deciduous tree. Leaf hydraulic conductivity overlapped considerably, but stem hydraulic conductivity diverged between the evergreen and deciduous tree. Correspondingly, structural properties of leaves overlapped substantially; however, structural properties of stem diverged markedly. Consequently, leaf and stem hydraulic traits were closely correlated with leaf and stem structural properties, respectively. Additionally, stem hydraulic efficiency was significantly correlated with stem hydraulic resistance to embolism; nevertheless, such a hydraulic pattern was not found in leaf hydraulics. Thus, these results suggest: (1) that the evergreen and deciduous tree mainly diverge in stem hydraulics, but not in leaf hydraulics, (2) that regardless of leaf or stem, their hydraulic traits result primarily from structural properties, and not from leaf phenology, (3) that leaves are more vulnerable to drought-induced embolism than stem in the evergreen tree, but not always in the deciduous tree and (4) that there exists a trade-off between hydraulic efficiency and safety for stem hydraulics, but not for leaf hydraulics.

Synthesis of Laurylchitosan and Its Use in the Separation of Flavonoids from Aleurites moluccana by Matrix Solid-Phase Dispersion

Chitosan was modified with lauroyl chloride to prepare a solid support for the application of matrix solid-phase dispersion (MSPD) for the extraction of flavonoids from the medicinal plant Aleurites moluccana. The laurylchitosan prepared by the homogenous and heterogeneous method, was characterized using analytical methods such as potentiometric titration and infrared spectroscopy. The hydrophobic properties were studied by naphthalene incorporation. The MSPD performance was evaluated by extraction of swertisin and 2″-O-rhamnosylswertisin from the leaves of A. moluccana.

Three novel 3,4- seco-podocarpane trinorditerpenoids from Aleurites moluccana

Three novel 3,4- seco-podocarpane-type trinorditerpenoids, moluccanic acid ( 1), moluccanic acid methyl ester ( 2), and 6,7-dehydromoluccanic acid ( 3), were isolated from the twigs and leaves of Aleurites moluccana. Their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic methods including 2D NMR analysis. The cytotoxicity of compounds 1– 3 was evaluated.

Inter‐species variation of photosynthetic and xylem hydraulic traits in the deciduous and evergreen Euphorbiaceae tree species from a seasonally tropical forest in south‐western China

AbstractThe objective of the present study was to examine the functional coordination among hydraulic traits, xylem characteristics and gas exchange rates across three deciduous Euphorbiaceae tree species (Hevea brasiliensis, Macaranga denticulata and Bischofia javanica) and three evergreen Euphorbiaceae tree species (Drypetes indica, Aleurites moluccana and Codiaeum variegatum) from a seasonally tropical forest in south‐western China. The deciduous tree species were more vulnerable to water stress‐induced embolism than the evergreen tree species. However, the deciduous tree species generally had higher maximal rates of sapwood and leaf‐specific hydraulic conductivity (KS and KL), respectively. Compared with the evergreen tree species, the deciduous tree species, however, possessed a lower density of sapwood and a wider diameter of xylem vessels. Regardless of leaf phenology, the hydraulic vulnerability and conductivity were significantly correlated with sapwood density and mean vessel diameter. Furthermore, the hydraulic vulnerability was positively correlated with water transport efficiency. In addition, the deciduous tree species exhibited higher maximal photosynthetic rates (Amax) and stomatal conductance (gmax), but lower water use efficiency (WUE). Interestingly, the Amax, gmax and WUE were strongly correlated with KS and KL across the deciduous and evergreen tree species. These results suggest that xylem structure, rather than leaf phenology, accounts for the difference in hydraulic traits between the deciduous tree species and the evergreen tree species. Meanwhile, our results show that there is a significant trade‐off between hydraulic efficiency and safety, and a strong functional correlation between the hydraulic capacity and gas exchange rates across the deciduous and evergreen tree species.

Benefits and Side Effects of Different Vegetable Oil Vectors on Apoptosis, Oxidative Stress, and P2X7 Cell Death Receptor Activation

Ocular side effects in patients using eye drops may be due to intolerance to the vector used in eye drops. Castor oil is the commonly used lipophilic vector but has been shown to be cytotoxic. Effects on cells of four oils (olive, camelina, Aleurites moluccana, maize) were compared with those of castor oil in human conjunctival cells. Human conjunctival cells were incubated with the oils for 15 minutes. After a 24-hour recovery period, cells were tested for viability, proliferation, apoptosis (P2X7 cell death receptor and caspase 3 activation), intracellular redox potential, and reactive oxygen species production. Fatty acid incorporation in cell membranes was also analyzed. In vivo ocular irritation was assessed using the Draize test. Compared to the four other oils, castor oil was shown to induce significant necrosis and P2X7 cell death receptor and caspase 3 activation and to enhance intracellular reactive oxygen species production. Aleurites moluccana and camelina oils were not cytotoxic and increased cell membrane omega-3 fatty acid content. None of the five tested oils showed any in vivo ocular irritation. The results demonstrated that castor oil exerts cytotoxic effects on conjunctival cells. This cytotoxicity could explain the side effects observed in some patients using eye drops containing castor oil as a vehicle. The lack of cytotoxic effects observed with the four other oils, Aleurites, camelina, maize, and olive, suggest that they could be chosen to replace castor oil in ophthalmic formulations.

Four New Podocarpane‐Type Trinorditerpenes from Aleurites moluccana

AbstractFour new podocarpane‐type trinorditerpenenes, (5β,10α)‐12,13‐dihydroxypodocarpa‐8,11,13‐trien‐3‐one (1), (5β,10α)‐12‐hydroxy‐13‐methoxypodocarpa‐8,11,13‐trien‐3‐one (2), (5β,10α)‐13‐hydroxy‐12‐methoxypodocarpa‐8,11,13‐trien‐3‐one (3), and (3α,5β,10α)‐13‐methoxypodocarpa‐8,11,13‐triene‐3,12‐diol (4), together with four known diterpenes, 12‐hydroxy‐13‐methylpodocarpa‐8,11,13‐trien‐3‐one (5), spruceanol (6), ent‐3α‐hydroxypimara‐8(14),15‐dien‐12‐one (7), and ent‐3β,14α‐hydroxypimara‐7,9(11),15‐triene‐12‐one (8), were isolated from the twigs and leaves of Aleurites moluccana. Their structures were elucidated by means of comprehensive spectroscopic analyses, including NMR and MS. Except 8, all compounds were evaluated for their cytotoxicity; compound 4 exhibited moderate inhibitory activity against Raji cells with an IC50 value of 4.24 μg/ml.

Soluble and insoluble oxalate content of nuts

This study was conducted to determine the oxalate contents in common nuts either locally grown or imported into New Zealand. Samples of imported nuts were purchased from supermarkets in Christchurch while locally grown nuts were obtained directly from the growers. In this experiment gastric soluble and intestinal soluble oxalates were extracted from the nuts using an in vitro assay, which involved incubations of the food samples for 2 h at 37 °C in gastric and intestinal juice. The extracted oxalates were then determined by HPLC chromatography. Roasted pistachio nuts and chestnuts contained very low levels (<85 mg/100 g fresh weight (FW)) of gastric soluble oxalate. Peanuts, Spanish peanuts, peanut butter, ginkgo, cashew nuts and pecan nuts all contained relatively low levels of gastric soluble oxalate (147–250 mg gastric soluble oxalate/100 g FW). Almonds, Brazil, pine and candle nuts contained high levels of gastric soluble oxalate (492.0–556.8 mg/100 g FW). The intestinal soluble oxalate is the fraction that will be absorbed in the small intestine. Peanuts, Spanish peanuts, peanut butter, ginkgo and pecan nuts all contained relatively low levels of intestinal soluble oxalate (129–173 mg intestinal soluble oxalate/100 g FW). Almonds, Brazil, cashew and candle nuts contained higher levels of intestinal soluble oxalate (216–305 mg/100 g FW). Pinenuts contained the highest levels of intestinal soluble oxalate (581 mg/100 g FW), while chestnuts and roasted pistachio nuts were low (72 and 77 mg /100 g FW). Overall the mean soluble oxalate contents of nuts was 78% of the gastric soluble oxalate content (41–100%). The results obtained in this study confirm that the intestinal soluble oxalate contents of nuts range widely and people who have a tendency to form kidney stones would be wise to moderate their consumption of certain nuts.

Drying characteristics of unshelled kernels of candle nuts

Candle nuts are cultivated in approximately 170 000 ha. in Indonesia, and yield around 140 000 tons of fruit per year. Prior to removing the shells, drying is an important process in the post-harvesting practice of candle nuts to obtain kernels as the final products. This paper gives a brief description of the efforts to obtain the basic drying characteristics of candle nuts, which is a pre-requisite for dryer design. The measurements were taken for unshelled kernels of candle nuts, for both fresh and stored samples, at temperatures of 40, 50, and 60 °C and drying air velocity of 0.67 m/s and 1 m/s using a forced convection dryer. The total drying time was substantially reduced with an increase in temperature, and the effect of drying air velocity was relatively small. Page’s model adequately describes the drying behavior for the range of temperatures measured. The dependence of the drying constant on air temperature can be described by the Arrhenius model.

Identification of drying oils in mixtures of natural binding media used for artistic and historic works by capillary electrophoresis

AbstractTo characterise the technologies and to find the appropriate treatments, the identification of the binding media of artistic and historic objects is of high importance for the restorer and conservator. Often applied together with other binders, in the present paper, the applicability of a CZE method was ascertained for the identification of the constituents of drying oils in mixtures with animal glues and/or plant gums. The drying oils are identified after alkaline hydrolysis due to their content of long‐chain saturated and unsaturated fatty acids (palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic) and shorter‐chain dicarboxylic acids (pimelic, suberic, azelaic, sebacic). The dicarboxylic acids occur as products of the unsaturated acids by oxidative degradation during the drying process. The possible interferences in CE caused by the other binders are amino acids and/or monosaccharides. Such interferences could be expected as indirect UV detection has to be used, which is highly unspecific. It was found that none of the constituents of the animal glues or plant gums migrate in the time window of the analytes, thus not obstructing the identification of the analytes in any of the oil mixtures with one binder, or with a combination of both. No interference is observed even in excess of the glues. The method was applied for the identification of a drying oil in a paint layer from a ceremonial mask originating from Papua New Guinea. There is evidence that the oil is most probably from candlenut tree (Aleurites moluccana).

Effectiveness of kukui nut oil as a topical treatment for psoriasis

No cure for psoriasis exists for the 1-3% of the American population who suffer from it; however, anecdotal reports from patients with psoriasis visiting Hawaii who purchased kukui nut oil, claim it helped reduce the severity of their lesions. This pilot study was a double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial to determine the effectiveness of kukui nut oil as a topical treatment for psoriasis. Thirty adult subjects (18-78 year) were recruited from the community for a 12-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. Subjects were previously diagnosed with mild, stable plaque psoriasis (less than 15% of total body surface area [TBSA]) and agreed to abstain from other treatments during the course of the study. Following a 4-week washout period the subjects were randomized into a treatment group (15 subjects applying kukui nut oil) or a control group (15 applying the mineral oil placebo). Patients were seen every 2 weeks (seven visits at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 weeks) by a dermatological nurse practitioner under the general supervision of a board certified dermatologist. Measurable outcomes included evaluation of one targeted lesion and of the overall severity of their psoriasis using clinical evaluation, Psoriasis Area and Sensitivity Index (PASI), Global Severity of Psoriasis Scale, and photographs. Each patient also evaluated their own lesions daily using the Global Severity of Psoriasis Scale, and noted any side-effects or other treatments used. Although both groups improved, we found no significant difference between the treatment (kukui nut oil) and the placebo (mineral oil) among the 24 out of 30 subjects (80%) who completed the study. No side-effects or adverse events were reported. Kukui nut oil did not significantly reduce symptoms of psoriasis; however, this was a small pilot study, and the use of this oil cannot be dismissed without using a larger study population of patients with psoriasis.

Sorption isotherms of shelled and unshelled kernels of candle nuts

The sorption isotherms of candle nuts, unshelled and shelled kernel samples, were measured at temperatures of 30, 40, 50, and 60 °C by a static gravimetric method. The unshelled kernel samples had a higher equilibrium moisture content than shelled kernel samples at all tested conditions. In both samples, hysteresis was pronounced and decreased as the temperature increased. The isosteric heat of desorption, calculated using Clausius–Clapeyron equation, was higher than the isosteric heat of adsorption. The GAB equation gave satisfactory goodness of fit to unshelled kernel samples data with the average of correlation coefficient, r 2, greater than 0.99 and the mean relative deviation, MRD, less than 0.05.

Diurnal and seasonal variations in leaf hydraulic conductance in evergreen and deciduous trees

We studied changes in the hydraulic conductance of leaves (K(leaf)) between dawn and dusk during the growth period (July) and at midday at the beginning of autumn in four tree species. The main objectives of the study were to check the extent of diurnal and seasonal changes in K(leaf) and the relationships between K(leaf), irradiance and leaf gas exchange. Two evergreen (Aleurites moluccana and Persea americana) and two deciduous trees (Platanus orientalis and Quercus rubra) were studied. Leaf hydraulic conductance was measured every 2 h between 0700 and 1900 h in July and compared with values measured between 0900 and 1300 h in October. Other variables measured were photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), leaf conductance to water vapor (gL) and water potential (psiL). In July, K(leaf) varied by up to 75% in Pe. americana on a diurnal basis and by at least 44% in Q. rubra. The diurnal time course of K(leaf) showed a distinct increase between dawn and late morning (1100 h) and a subsequent decrease in the evening in A. moluccana and Pl. orientalis, whereas in the other two species, K(leaf) was highest just after dawn and lowest in the evening. In October, K(leaf) of all the species studied was lower than in July, with differences of 20 to 28% for A. moluccana and Pl. orientalis and of 66 to over 70% in Pe. americana and Q. rubra, respectively. Significant correlations were found between PAR and K(leaf) (in all species) as well as between gL and K(leaf) (in three out of four species). Leaf habit (evergreen or deciduous) did not influence absolute values of K(leaf) or its diurnal variation.

A Survey of Woody Tropical Species for Boron Retranslocation

The mobility in phloem of boron (B) has been reported to vary among plant species. Boron is phloem immobile in many species and completely mobile in others. Recent reports regarding phloem B mobility or immobility only considered temperate plants, and there is no information on tropical species. Information of phloem B mobility is useful for improving the diagnosis of B deficiency and management of B status in crop production. This study aimed to survey tropical species for their B mobility. Leaf samples of 17 species, including cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.), mango (Mangifera indica L.), custard apple (Annona squamosa L.), papaya (Carica papaya L.), cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz.), Indian walnut (Samanea samen (Jacq.) Marrill.), cork wood tree (Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers.), tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.), jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk.), guava (Psidium guajava L.), star fruit (Averrhoa carambola L.), passion fruit (Passiflora edulis Sims.), coffee (Coffea arabica L.), lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle.), longan (Euphoria longana Lam.), lychee (Lychi chinensis Sonn.) and teak (Tectona grandis L.) were collected in the position of the youngest fully expanded leaf (YFEL), the middle leaf age of a branch (ML) and the oldest leaf (OL). Based on a premise that the nutrient concentration gradient between young and old leaves will be steeper in those species in which B is immobile, B concentration in the different leaf positions was examined in comparison with calcium (Ca is phloem immobile) and potassium (K is phloem mobile). Concentrations of K in all leaf types were not significantly different or decreased with leaf age, while Ca concentrations were always higher in the older leaves. Three species; tamarind, guava and teak, showed concentration gradients of B that were similar to K. The results suggested that B may be retranslocated from older to younger leaves of these species, hence indicating that B may be phloem mobile in these species. However, this hypothesis needs confirmation through studies examining retranslocation of B using 10B isotope or identification of B-complexing molecules in the phloem, e.g. sugar alcohols.

Separation of Flavonoids from Aleurites moluccana Leaves Using Chitosan Modified with Heptaldehyde

Heptaldehyde-modified chitosan (heptyl-chitosan, CH-Hp) was investigated as adsorbent for chromatograhic separation of the flavonoids from A. moluccana. The amount of 2"-O-rhamnosylswertisin isolated (30.0 mg) was approx. twice as high as swertisin (17.5 mg). The improved surface hydrophobicity effected by the heptyl groups promoted the separation of flavonoids. From the results obtained, CH-Hp seems to be more suitable for separation of glycosylated flavonoids than other flavonoids. Thus, modified chitosan described here can be used for hydrophobic interaction chromatography as sucessfully illustrated with flavonoids.

Fatty acid profiles of kukui nut oils over time and from different sources

Kukui nut ( Aleurites moluccana) oil is starting to become a source of ingredients for cosmetics preparation. Fatty acid profiles are considered to be important for quality assessment. As part of an effort to grow the kukui nut oil industry, information was needed to determine whether fatty acid profiles of kukui nut oils made 10 years ago have changed over time. Commercial chemical preparation procedures and laboratory analytical methods have been modified. In addition, it was desirable to know whether oils from nuts from different parts of the world and oils subjected to deodorization procedures had similar fatty acid profiles. All kukui nut oils from Polynesian sources (Hawaii, Tonga) had identical fatty acid profiles over a 10-year period. This finding suggests that production practices for obtaining the oil and analytical procedures had not changed significantly over time. One Polynesian oil had a profile that was similar to the kukui nut oils obtained from Indonesia and East Timor. Like deodorized kukui nut oils obtained by steam distillation, these were also different from most of the Polynesian oils in that their linolenic acid (18:3cΔ9,12,15) values were significantly lower.

Hypolipidaemic activity of methanol extract of Aleurites moluccana.

The lipid-lowering action of the leaves of the Aleurites moluccana methanol extract was studied in Triton W-1339 and high-fat-diet fed rats. The serum lipids (total cholesterol, LDL- and HDL-cholesterol and triglycerides) and body weight were found to be lowered by A. moluccana (300 mg/kg, b.w.) in rats with Triton-induced hypercholesterolaemia and on a hyperlipaemic diet. The results suggest that the lipid lowering action of this natural product is mediated through inhibition of hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis and reduction of lipid absorption in the intestine.

Separation of C-glycoside flavonoids from Aleurites moluccana using chitin and full N-acetylated chitin.

This paper describes a comparative study using different chromatographic supports (fully N-acetylated chitin, chitin and silica gel) to separate the flavonoids swertisin and 2"-O-rhamnosylswertisin from Aleurites moluccana. The results show that the flavonoids have apparently been separated by the hydrogen bond between the stationary phase (chitin and chitin-100) and flavonoids under the conditions studied.

New Caledonian Crows drop candle-nuts onto rock from communally used forks on branches

Many birds and non-human primates purposely drop or throw down objects from a height to achieve a goal. Tool-using New Caledonian Crows, Corvus moneduloides, are one of the few birds that drop nuts, and do so when standing on a substrate. In this initial study of their nut-dropping, we watched free-living Crows at Sarraméa drop Aleurites moluccana ‘candle-nuts’ from branches onto rock at two locations 200 m apart. Over three consecutive days, Crows dropped nuts 208 and 85 times, respectively, from two branches at one of the locations, and 74 times over three days from one branch at the other location. Most nuts that broke or were damaged and prised open were dropped 2–3 times. Aside from 18 unseen cases, birds released all 349 nuts from forks in the branches, not directly from their bills. Our findings confirm early reports that suggested that Crows select branches non-randomly for nut-dropping, drop candle-nuts onto anvils from predetermined locations on branches and communally use nut-dropping branches. In addition, we report here new behaviour associated with animals dropping objects from a height: (i) the placing of objects on a substrate to release them, and (ii) the repeated dropping of objects from the same release position in three-dimensional space by the use of forks in branches. Nut-dropping from forks is well suited for experimental work to investigate the evolution, maintenance and transmission of a novel, object-related foraging behaviour.

A new phorbol diester from Aleuritesmoluccana

A new phorbol diester, 13- O-myristyl-20- O-acetyl-12-deoxyphorbol (1), has been isolated from the benzene extract of the heartwood of Aleurites moluccana. In addition, hentriacontane, 6,7-dimethoxycoumarin, 5,6,7-trimethoxycoumarin and β-sitostenone are being reported for the first time from this species.

Attainment of the Theoretical Yield of Carbon from Biomass

Previous work has shown that very high yields of charcoal are obtained when pyrolysis of the biomass feedstock is conducted at elevated pressure in a closed vessel, wherein the pyrolytic vapors are held captive and in contact with the solid products of pyrolysis. In this paper, we show that, for some biomass species, the yield of carbon produced by this process effectively attains the theoretical value predicted to exist when thermochemical equilibrium is realized. Various agricultural wastes (e.g., kukui nut, macadamia nut, and pecan shells) and tropical species (e.g., eucalyptus, leucaena, and bamboo) offer higher yields of carbon than the hardwoods traditionally employed by industry in the U.S. and Europe. Moreover, the yields of carbon from oat and rice hulls and from sunflower seed hulls are nearly as high as the yields of carbon from hardwoods. There is a correlation between the yield of carbon and the acid-insoluble lignin content of the feed. Charcoal briquettes made from agricultural wastes and lump charcoal from tropical species are promising sources of renewable carbon for use in the smelting of metal ores.