Alcohol Retail Research Articles

Healthcare and Medical Graduates of 2009: Their Reactions to Four Key Proposals in the Scottish Government's Strategy for Tackling Alcohol Misuse

This study compares the views of final year medical, and nursing and allied health professional (NAHP) students in relation to four governmental proposals impacting on the sale and purchase of alcohol. Against a background of political will to address alcohol abuse in Scotland and moves within the National Health Service promoting a shifting of professional roles, self-completed questionnaires were administered in spring 2009 through course websites and lectures to final year medical and NAHP students. Questionnaires were returned by 406 NAHPs and 121 medical students. Over three quarters of all students agreed with the proposed change to reduce the drink driving limit to 50 mg/100 ml blood. Less support was evident for the raising of the minimum legal purchase age for off-sales (37%), the banning of below cost price promotions of alcohol (47%) and minimum retail pricing (37%). However, there were differences between the NAHP and medical students in the case of the final two proposals; over 60% of the medical students agreed they would have a positive impact. For NAHPs, figures were 41% and 31%, respectively. Support for four key proposals outlined by the Scottish Government to address alcohol misuse varied. Only the suggestion to lower the drink driving limit received backing overall and within students in these professions. Effectiveness of proposed restrictions on the price of alcohol was less well regarded except by medical students. Evident gaps in knowledge around health guidelines, and the finding that almost half of NAHPs disagreed that they had the appropriate knowledge to advise patients about responsible drinking advice and alcohol misuse problems, suggest a need for improved undergraduate education and continued professional development with respect to public health aspects of alcohol use.

Changes in per capita alcohol sales during the partial privatization of British Columbia's retail alcohol monopoly 2003–2008: a multi‐level local area analysis

To investigate the independent effects on liquor sales of an increase in (a) the density of liquor outlets and (b) the proportion of liquor stores in private rather than government ownership in British Columbia between 2003/4 and 2007/8. The British Columbia Liquor Distribution Branch provided data on litres of ethanol sold through different types of outlets in 89 local health areas of the province by beverage type. Multi-level regression models were used to examine the relationship between per capita alcohol sales and outlet densities for different types of liquor outlet after adjusting for potential confounding social, economic and demographic factors as well as spatial and temporal autocorrelation. Liquor outlets in 89 local health areas of British Columbia, Canada. The number of private stores per 10,000 residents was associated significantly and positively with per capita sales of ethanol in beer, coolers, spirits and wine, while the reverse held for government liquor stores. Significant positive effects were also identified for the number of bars and restaurants per head of population. The percentage of liquor stores in private versus government ownership was also associated significantly with per capita alcohol sales when controlling for density of liquor stores and of on-premise outlets (P < 0.01). The trend towards privatisation of liquor outlets between 2003/04 and 2007/08 in British Columbia has contributed to increased per capita sales of alcohol and hence possibly also to increased alcohol-related harm.

Retail Format as a Barrier to Entry

“Barriers to entry” form a key construct in strategy scholarship and pedagogy. However, limited empirical evidence exists for many putative barriers. For example, although considerable evidence suggests that managers perceive the existence of significant distribution-related barriers to entry, there is virtually no empirical evidence for distribution’s actual role as an entry barrier. We exploit a field experiment conducted by Systembolaget, the Swedish government alcohol retail monopoly, and examine the role of changes in distribution through a randomized change from counter-service to self-service stores. We find that self-service stores sell much higher product variety and new entrants do better in self-service stores. The increase in variety is comparable to the change from catalog sales to internet.

A Multisite Randomized Trial of Social Norms Marketing Campaigns to Reduce College Student Drinking: A Replication Failure

ABSTRACT A 14-site randomized trial tested the effectiveness of social norms marketing (SNM) campaigns, which present accurate student survey data in order to correct misperceptions of subjective drinking norms and thereby drive down alcohol use. Cross-sectional student surveys were conducted by mail at baseline and at posttest 3 years later. Hierarchical linear modeling was applied to examine multiple drinking outcomes, taking into account the nonindependence of students grouped in the same college. Controlling for other predictors, having a SNM campaign was not significantly associated with lower perceptions of student drinking levels or lower self-reported alcohol consumption. This study failed to replicate a previous multisite randomized trial of SNM campaigns, which showed that students attending institutions with a SNM campaign had a lower relative risk of alcohol consumption than students attending control group institutions (W. DeJong et al. J Stud Alcohol. 2006;67:868–879). Additional research is needed to explore whether SNM campaigns are less effective in campus communities with relatively high alcohol retail outlet density.

Visioner och Sätt att Verkställa Dem: Nyckelaktörers Åsikter om Lokal Alkoholpolitik

This study is based on an analysis of discussions of local experts on the prevention of alcohol-related harms. Dismantling of the centralized and hierarchical alcohol control system in Finland has shifted responsibilities from the state to the local level, and restructured the system of alcohol policy and prevention. At the state level greater emphasis is now placed on supporting and enabling local work, and the local level is expected to co-ordinate multiprofessional team work on a broad basis. In this process the roles and responsibilities of different actors are being reconfigured. The substudy is a part of the Local Alcohol Policy (PAKKA) demonstration and evaluation project. This particular sub-study focuses on the possibilities and factors influencing sustainability of local interventions. The data were gathered in four group discussions. The discussion groups consisted of various actors influential in the professional fields of alcohol retail and the restaurant business, liquor licensing and surveillance, the police, and municipal harm prevention. The thematic discussion was facilitated by a researcher. The discussions were videotaped and transcribed and analysed by using the group as the unit of analyses. The participants explored ways of resolving the pressures caused by the decentralizing of alcohol prevention to the local level, and conceptualized the role and position of preventive work amid the changes in the alcohol administration. The different groups had similar views on the difficulties and obstacles faced by local prevention of alcohol-related harms. All of them also discussed the balance between public and private responsibility. The groups differed from one another in terms of how they saw the relationship between alcohol markets, civil society and the public sector. They also differed in how optimistic they were about the future of local work in the prevention of alcohol-related harms. The analysis reveals a kind of an empowerment story about the future possibilities of local alcohol policy.

Alcohol Environments and Disparities in Exposure Associated With Adolescent Drinking in California

We investigated sociodemographic disparities in alcohol environments and their relationship with adolescent drinking. We geocoded and mapped alcohol license data with ArcMap to construct circular buffers centered at 14 595 households with children that participated in the California Health Interview Survey. We calculated commercial sources of alcohol in each buffer. Multivariate logistic regression differentiated the effects of alcohol sales on adolescents' drinking from their individual, family, and neighborhood characteristics. Alcohol availability, measured by mean and median number of licenses, was significantly higher around residences of minority and lower-income families. Binge drinking and driving after drinking among adolescents aged 12 to 17 years were significantly associated with the presence of alcohol retailers within 0.5 miles of home. Simulation of changes in the alcohol environment showed that if alcohol sales were reduced from the mean number of alcohol outlets around the lowest-income quartile of households to that of the highest quartile, prevalence of binge drinking would fall from 6.4% to 5.6% and driving after drinking from 7.9% to 5.9%. Alcohol outlets are concentrated in disadvantaged neighborhoods and can contribute to adolescent drinking. To reduce underage drinking, environmental interventions need to curb opportunities for youth to obtain alcohol from commercial sources by tightening licensure, enforcing minimum-age drinking laws, or other measures.

Neighbourhood Provision of Food and Alcohol Retailing and Social Deprivation in Urban New Zealand

Recent research has considered whether a range of social and physical characteristics of residential neighbourhoods are important in explaining social and spatial inequalities in health. One strand of this research has investigated the role of neighbourhood access to retail provision of healthy and affordable food. In this national study we used Geographical Information Systems (GIS) to examine the association between food retail (supermarkets, convenience stores and fast food outlets) and licensed alcohol outlet locations, and an area measure of deprivation for urban neighbourhoods across New Zealand. We found that contrary to the international evidence, for all outlet types, access to a range of retail options tended to be better in more deprived neighbourhoods. The implications of this socio-spatial distribution of food and alcohol retailing in reducing health inequalities are discussed.

Alcohol sales and risk of serious assault.

BackgroundAlcohol is a contributing cause of unintentional injuries, such as motor vehicle crashes. Prior research on the association between alcohol use and violent injury was limited to survey-based data, and the inclusion of cases from a single trauma centre, without adequate controls. Beyond these limitations was the inability of prior researchers to comprehensively capture most alcohol sales. In Ontario, most alcohol is sold through retail outlets run by the provincial government, and hospitals are financed under a provincial health care system. We assessed the risk of being hospitalized due to assault in association with retail alcohol sales across Ontario.Methods and FindingsWe performed a population-based case-crossover analysis of all persons aged 13 years and older hospitalized for assault in Ontario from 1 April 2002 to 1 December 2004. On the day prior to each assault case's hospitalization, the volume of alcohol sold at the store in closest proximity to the victim's home was compared to the volume of alcohol sold at the same store 7 d earlier. Conditional logistic regression analysis was used to determine the associated relative risk (RR) of assault per 1,000 l higher daily sales of alcohol. Of the 3,212 persons admitted to hospital for assault, nearly 25% were between the ages of 13 and 20 y, and 83% were male. A total of 1,150 assaults (36%) involved the use of a sharp or blunt weapon, and 1,532 (48%) arose during an unarmed brawl or fight. For every 1,000 l more of alcohol sold per store per day, the relative risk of being hospitalized for assault was 1.13 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.02–1.26). The risk was accentuated for males (1.18, 95% CI 1.05–1.33), youth aged 13 to 20 y (1.21, 95% CI 0.99–1.46), and those in urban areas (1.19, 95% CI 1.06–1.35).ConclusionsThe risk of being a victim of serious assault increases with alcohol sales, especially among young urban men. Akin to reducing the risk of driving while impaired, consideration should be given to novel methods of preventing alcohol-related violence.

Retail Sales of Alcohol and the Risk of Being a Victim of Assault

Russell Bennetts and Rachel Seabrook discuss the implications of a new case-crossover study that links retail alcohol sales and violent assaults.

How to sell alcohol? Nordic alcohol monopolies in a changing epoch

The principles of the EU internal market have made it difficult to maintain effective national regulation in the public health arena. The EEA agreement and EU membership resulted in the abolition of all the monopolies on alcohol except at the retail level in the Nordic countries. The article examines how the Nordic alcohol retail monopolies have developed and reacted to national and international pressures on their activities from the mid 1990s to 2006. The article also analyzes what effects the changing surroundings of the Nordic alcohol monopolies have had on the monopolies' present tasks and positions. The method used in this study is document analysis and interviewing. The material analysed includes annual reports of the Nordic alcohol monopolies, their web pages, reports and brochures, and laws and regulations that pertain to the monopolies. The article shows that the monopolies have worked purposefully to make themselves popular among the population, with an increased focus on customer service. These changes are based upon both international pressures and changes in perspective within politics in general, where a slow transition from a collectivist solidarity perspective to a more individualistic lifestyle perspective can be discerned.

Artikel

The growth of the EU internal market has made it more difficult to maintain effective national regulation in the area of public health. The EEA agreement and EU membership of the Nordic countries resulted in the abolition of all of the monopolies on alcohol except at the retail level. The article examines how the Nordic alcohol retail monopolies have developed and reacted to national and international pressures on their activities from the mid 1990s to 2006. The article also analyzes what effects the changing surroundings of the Nordic alcohol monopolies have had on the monopolies' present tasks, positions and political aims. The method used in this study is document analysis and interviewing. The material analysed includes annual reports of the Nordic alcohol monopolies, their web pages, reports and brochures, and the laws and regulations pertaining to the monopolies. The article shows that the monopolies have worked purposefully to make themselves popular with the public, with an increased focus on customer service. These changes are based upon both international pressures and changes in perspective within politics in general, where a slow transition from a collectivist solidarity perspective to a more individualistic lifestyle perspective can be discerned.

Securing the doors: bouncers and the British licensed trade

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the social and legal requirements of the job of bouncer in British alcohol retailing outlets and to consider the impact of the Security Industries Authority (SIA) requirements.Design/methodology/approachThere is little literature on the topic. Thus, the objectives have been achieved with reference to the limited material and by asking a selection of stakeholders.FindingsThe work uncovered the attempts to create a formal career structure within the job, and thus to make a potentially violent occupation more respectable. It would appear that those involved perceive little difference to have resulted.Research limitations/implicationsThe interviews involved only one small town. There may well be regional differences, and towns and cities may offer different findings.Practical implicationsFrom the limited work undertaken, it would appear that door staff themselves feel that the lack of a practical element within the qualification is a serious omission. Moreover, if the development of professional door staff is to succeed, the SIA needs to make its aims clear to the public at large.Originality/valueStudies of the licensed trade neglect the work of door staff. More research in this area could improve the service offered, and thus benefit all of those who frequent licensed premises.

What we learn from a reduction in the retail alcohol prices: lessons from Finland

What we learn from a reduction in the retail alcohol prices: lessons from Finland

The impact of outlet densities on alcohol-related crashes: A spatial panel approach

Background A number of studies using cross-sectional data have demonstrated that the availability of alcohol, measured by the number and types of alcohol outlets, is directly related to numerous measures associated with drinking and driving. The current study contributes the first observation of relationships over time between alcohol outlet densities on one hand and both automobile crashes and related injuries on the other hand. Method The study examined longitudinal data from 581 consistently defined zip code areas represented in the California Index Locations Database, a geographic information system that coordinates population and ecological data with spatial attributes for areas across the state. Six years of data were collected on features of local populations (e.g., demographics, household size) and places (e.g., retail markets) thought to be related to two measures of automobile crashes (hospital discharges related to car crash injuries geocoded to the zip code of patient residence, and police reports associated with car crashes geocoded to the zip code of crash location). Both crash measures were positively associated with two outlet types: bars, and off-premise outlets. Additionally, restaurants appear to provide a protective effect relative to the residence-based measure. Crash rates were also related to changes in population and place characteristics using random effects models with controls for spatial autocorrelation ( n × t = 3486 observations). Changes in population and place characteristics of adjacent (spatially lagged) areas were also considered. Results Over time, both local and lagged population and place characteristics were related to automobile crash-related measures. Conclusion Controlling for cross-sectional differences between zip code areas, changes in numbers of licensed alcohol retail establishments, especially bars and off-premise outlets, affect rates of car crashes and related injuries.

Alcohol marketing and retailing: Public opinion and recent policy developments in Canada

Recent developments in alcohol policy in Canada, particularly those pertaining to alcohol marketing and retailing, provide the context for this study of public opinion on alcohol policy topics. Three national surveys were conducted in 1989, 1994 and 2004. Respondents to the telephone interviews were sampled by province to be representative of the population aged 15 and older; numbers ranged from 4658 (2004) to 12,155 (1994). The key variables were gender, age group, province, education, drinking pattern and frequency of heavy drinking. Ten questions about alcohol policy were included in the analysis, but not all questions were asked in all 3 years. The logistic regression models contained a year effect, independent variable effect, and a year‐by‐independent variable effect. There was considerable variation in support across policy topics, the rank order being similar from year to year. There was somewhat less support for those items, e.g. higher taxes or fewer outlets, considered to be effective by evaluation studies. A major finding was a decline in support over time. Women, older respondents, and lighter drinkers and abstainers were more likely to be supportive of alcohol control policies. The analyses also revealed interaction between provinces and rate of change in declining support. The authors hypothesize that intensive marketing and retailing of alcohol may be important factors in declining public support. Declining support for alcohol policy is expected to have implications for controlling damage and costs related to increasing alcohol consumption.

Fake ID ownership and heavy drinking in underage college students: Prospective findings.

The authors examined the ownership of false identification (fake ID) for the purpose of obtaining alcohol and the relation of fake ID ownership to heavy drinking in a longitudinal sample of college students under 21 years of age. A sample of 3,720 undergraduates was assessed the summer prior to college entrance and during the 4 semesters comprising freshman and sophomore years. Regression analyses were used to estimate bidirectional relations between consumption and fake ID ownership. Sex, Greek membership, and prior drinking were controlled. Results showed that fake ID ownership increased over time (12.5% pre-college to 32.2% fourth semester) and that Greek members were more likely than others to own fake IDs. Fake ID ownership predicted concurrent and next-semester heavy drinking with increasing strength over time. Also, the acquisition (onset) of fake ID ownership at each time point was predicted by previous-semester consumption. When traditional, robust risk factors of consumption are controlled, fake ID ownership meaningfully relates to heavy drinking in college. It thus presents a significant public health problem, addressable through training for alcohol servers and retailers, punitive measures toward fake ID owners, and other possible interventions.

Alcohol Outlets and Problem Drinking Among Adults in California

The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between alcohol environments and problem drinking, including excessive alcohol consumption, heavy episodic drinking, driving after drinking, and riding with a drinking driver. We merged geo-coded individual-level data from the California Health Interview Survey and Los Angeles County Health Survey with alcohol license data from the California Department of Alcoholic Beverage Control, distinguishing off-sale retails from on-sale establishments and, among on-sales, eating places from bars and taverns as well as minor-unrestricted establishments from minor-restricted establishments (i.e., youth below age 21 not allowed on business premises). The primary explanatory variable was alcohol outlets within various distances from an individual's residence or census tract. Multivariate logistic regression and simulation were run for men and women separately. On-sale establishments, particularly minor-restricted establishments, were significantly associated with excessive alcohol consumption and heavy episodic drinking, after controlling for individual and neighborhood sociodemographics. The effect was limited to outlets located within proximity, roughly 1 mile from residential homes. Off-sale retails were not found to be related to problem drinking. If the number of minor-restricted establishments increases from median to 90th percentile of their distribution, heavy episodic drinking would increase from 11.1% to 14.3% among women and from 19.6% to 22.0% among men. Certain types of alcohol retailers in neighborhoods were associated with problem drinking. Moratorium of new licenses based on number of licenses per capita at county level is not effective because only a subgroup of licenses matters, and alcohol is more available in terms of distance, travel time, or search costs in densely populated cities.

Alcohol and Environmental Justice: The Density of Liquor Stores and Bars in Urban Neighborhoods in the United States

This study had two purposes: (1) to characterize the density of liquor stores and bars that individuals face according to race, economic status, and age in the urban United States and (2) to assess alternative measures of retailer density based on the road network and population. We used census data on business counts and sociodemographic characteristics to compute the densities facing individuals in 9,361 urban zip codes. Blacks face higher densities of liquor stores than do whites. The density of liquor stores is greater among nonwhites in lower-income areas than among whites in lower- and higher-income areas and nonwhites in higher-income areas. Nonwhite youths face higher densities of liquor stores than white youths. The density of liquor stores and bars is lower in higher-income areas, especially for nonwhites. Mismatches between alcohol demand and the supply of liquor stores within urban neighborhoods constitute an environmental injustice for minorities and lower-income persons, with potential adverse consequences for drinking behavior and other social ills. Our results for bars are sensitive to the measure of outlet density as well as population density. Although neither measure is clearly superior, a measure that accounts for roadway miles may reflect proximity to alcohol retailers and thus serve as a useful refinement to the per-capita measure. If so, alcohol policy might also focus on density per roadway mile. Further research on the existence, causes, and consequences of environmental injustice in alcohol retailing is warranted.

The Price of Alcohol: A Consideration of Contextual Factors

The current study considers the determinants of prices charged for alcoholic beverages by on-premise and off-premise outlets in Alaska. Alcohol outlet densities, a surrogate measure for local retail competition, are expected to be negatively associated with prices while costs associated with distribution are expected to be positively related to prices. Community demographic and economic characteristics may affect observed local prices via the level of demand, retail costs borne by retailers, or the quality of brands offered for sale. The core data for these analyses came from a telephone survey of Alaskan retail establishments licensed to serve alcohol. This survey utilized computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) techniques to collect alcohol-pricing information from on-premise (i.e., establishments where alcohol is consumed at the point of purchase such as bars and restaurants) and off-premise (i.e., establishments such as grocery stores and convenience markets where consumption occurs in other locations) alcohol retailers throughout the state of Alaska. Price estimates were developed for each beverage-type based on alcohol content. Separate regression analyses were used to model each of the 8 price indices (on-premise and off-premise measures for beer, spirits, wine, and the average price across beverage types). All regressions also controlled for a set of zip-code level indicators of community economic and demographic characteristics based on census data. Outlet density per roadway mile was unrelated to price for both on- and off-premise establishments, either across or between beverage types. In contrast, overall distribution costs did appear to be related to alcohol price. The demographic and economic variables, as a group, were significantly related to observed prices. More attention needs to be directed to the manner in which sellers and buyers behave relative to alcoholic beverages. Alcohol demand remains responsive to prices; yet, consumers have considerable latitude in determining the price that they pay for alcohol.

The Relationship between Beer Taxes, Other Alcohol Policies, and Child Homicide Deaths

Abstract Extant research finds inverse relationships between beer taxes and physical child abuse. This study extends the direction of research by investigating the relationship between beer taxes, other alcohol policies and child homicide deaths. The homicide death count for children 0-9 years old at the state level over 1981-2002 is used as the dependent variable. Negative binomial regression models with state and year fixed effects and other control variables are estimated. Results show an inverse relationship between per gallon beer taxes and child homicide deaths (elasticity approximately -0.19), and a direct relationship between alcohol retail outlet density and child homicide deaths (elasticity approximately 0.16). Very similar results are obtained when the dependent variable is changed to be the sum of child homicide deaths and child deaths classified as being due to 'undetermined intent', and when conditional maximum likelihood Poisson models are used instead of negative binomial models.