Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire Research Articles

Establishing Motivational Profiles to Drink among College Students: Converging Patterns Using Multiple Theories of Alcohol use.

Objective: While college student drinking has been studied utilizing many different theories and approaches, it is unclear how these theories may overlap in their explanation of problematic drinking. Rather than relying on one theory, examining overlap between multiple theories of alcohol use may lead to a better understanding of the motivational process underlying drinking behavior. The current study proposes that the Ambivalence Model of Craving, Behavioral Economics, and Alcohol Outcome Expectancy Theory account for the same underlying anticipatory process and sought to demonstrate this by establishing motivational profiles utilizing constructs within each theory. Methods: A total of 318 college student drinkers completed a series of surveys assessing their drinking behavior and the measures pertaining to each theory (i.e., Approach and Avoidance of Alcohol Questionnaire, Alcohol Purchase Task, Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire). A latent profile analysis was used to establish profiles of motivational tendencies. Results: Results from the latent profile analysis indicated four profiles emerged, three of which were consistent with our hypotheses: approach, avoidance, and indifferent. The fourth motivational profile appeared to represent drinkers with an emerging approach tendency but relatively newer to drinking. The lack of ambivalent profile suggests that avoidant tendencies may develop later in response to an accumulation of experience with drinking. Lastly, these profiles demonstrated expected relationships with drinking behavior. Conclusion: This study is unique in its attempt to highlight similarities between theories. Results provide a useful integration of theories to allow for a more generalized understanding of motivational tendencies that develop in response to drinking experiences.

The effects of age on the severity of problem drinking: Mediating effects of positive alcohol expectancy and neural correlates.

Aging is associated with reduction in the severity of alcohol misuse. However, the psychological and neural mechanisms underlying the age-related changes remain unclear. Here, we tested the hypothesis that age-related diminution of positive alcohol expectancy (AE) mediated the effects of age on problem drinking and investigated the neural correlates of the mediating effects. Ninety-six drinkers 21-85 years of age, including social drinkers and those with mild/moderate alcohol use disorder (AUD), were assessed for global positive (GP) AE and problem drinking, each with the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire and Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), and with brain imaging during alcohol cue exposure. We processed imaging data with published routines; identified the correlates shared between whole-brain regression against age, GP and AUDIT scores; and performed mediation and path analyses to explore the interrelationships between the clinical and neural variables. The results showed that age was negatively correlated with both GP and AUDIT scores, with GP score completely mediating the correlation between age and AUDIT score. Lower age and higher GP correlated with shared cue responses in bilateral parahippocampal gyrus and left middle occipital cortex (PHG/OC). Further, higher GP and AUDIT scores were associated with shared cue responses in bilateral rostral anterior cingulate cortex and caudate head (ACC/caudate). Path analyses demonstrated models with significant statistical fit and PHG/OC and ACC/caudate each interrelating age to GP and GP to AUDIT scores. These findings confirmed change in positive AE as a psychological mechanism mitigating alcohol misuse as individuals age and highlighted the neural processes of cue-reactivity interrelating age and alcohol use severity.

Analysis of the Relationship between Emotional Intelligence, Resilience, and Family Functioning in Adolescents’ Sustainable Use of Alcohol and Tobacco

The use of alcohol and tobacco is related to several variables, which act as risk or protective factors depending on the circumstances. The objectives of this study were to analyze the relationship between emotional intelligence, resilience, and family functioning in adolescent use of alcohol and tobacco, and to find emotional profiles for their use with regard to self-concept. The sample was made up of 317 high school students aged 13 to 18, who filled out the Brief Emotional Intelligence Inventory, the Resilience Scale for Adolescents, the APGAR Scale, the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire–Adolescents, and the Five-Factor Self-Concept Questionnaire. The results revealed that emotional intelligence and resilience, specifically stress management and family cohesion, were significant in the group of non-users. Family functioning acts as a predictor for the onset of use of tobacco and alcohol. Positive expectancies about drinking alcohol were found to be a risk factor, and the intrapersonal factor was found to be protective. Both stress management and family cohesion were protective factors against smoking. Furthermore, cluster analysis revealed the emotional profiles for users of both substances based on self-concept. Finally, the importance of the direction of the relationship between the variables studied for intervention in this problem should be mentioned. Responsible use by improving adolescent decision-making is one of the results expected from this type of intervention.

Acute alcohol effects on impulsive choice in adolescents.

Neurodevelopmental and alcohol-induced changes in decision-making have been proposed to critically influence impulsive behaviour in adolescents. This study tested the influence of acute alcohol administration on impulsive choice in adolescents. Fifty-four males aged 18-19 years were tested in a single-blind placebo-controlled cross-over design. During alcohol administration (infusion resulting in an arterial blood alcohol concentration of 80 mg%) and placebo condition (saline infusion), participants performed a task battery providing estimates of delay discounting, probability discounting for gains, for losses and loss aversion, and also rated subjectively experienced alcohol effects. Additionally, baseline alcohol consumption (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, blood phosphatidylethanol levels), motives (Drinking Motive Questionnaire, Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire and Obsessive Compulsive Drinking Scale), family history and self-report measures of impulsivity (Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, Substance Use Risk Profile Scale) were provided. No overall effects of treatment on choice behaviour were found. However, individual differences were observed. In the alcohol condition, more impulsive choice tendencies for delay discounting were associated with higher subjectively experienced alcohol effects. Further, higher risk aversion for probabilistic gains and higher loss aversion during alcohol condition were related to higher levels of real-life alcohol consumption and a family history of alcohol problems, respectively. Finally, the time to make a decision was substantially shortened for choices involving negative prospects. Contrary to common beliefs, acute alcohol intoxication did not generally incite impulsive decision-making. It rather appears that alcohol-induced behavioural changes in adolescents vary considerably depending on prior experiences and subjective effects of alcohol.

Alcohol Expectancy and Cerebral Responses to Cue-Elicited Craving in Adult Nondependent Drinkers

BackgroundPositive alcohol expectancy (AE) contributes to excessive drinking. Many imaging studies have examined cerebral responses to alcohol cues and how these regional processes related to problem drinking. However, it remains unclear how AE relates to cue response and whether AE mediates the relationship between cue response and problem drinking. MethodsA total of 61 nondependent drinkers were assessed with the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire and Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test and underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging while exposed to alcohol and neutral cues. Imaging data were processed and analyzed with published routines, and mediation analyses were conducted to examine the interrelationships among global positive score of the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire, Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test score, and regional responses to alcohol versus neutral cues. ResultsAlcohol as compared with neutral cues engaged the occipital, retrosplenial, and medial orbitofrontal cortex as well as the left caudate head and red nucleus. The bilateral thalamus showed a significant correlation in cue response and in left superior frontal cortical connectivity with global positive score in a linear regression. Mediation analyses showed that global positive score completely mediated the relationship between thalamic cue activity as well as superior frontal cortical connectivity and Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test score. The alternative models that AE contributed to problem drinking and, in turn, thalamic cue activity and connectivity were not supported. ConclusionsThe findings suggest an important role of the thalamic responses to alcohol cues in contributing to AE and at-risk drinking in nondependent drinkers. AEs may reflect a top-down modulation of the thalamic processing of alcohol cues, influencing the pattern of alcohol use.

Revisión de la versión adaptada del Cuestionario de Expectativas hacia el Alcohol (AEQ) para jóvenes universitarios

Introducción: el Cuestionario de Expectativas hacia el Alcohol (AEQ) es empleado para medir las creencias de los individuos sobre el consumo de esta sustancia. En México se cuenta con una adaptación del instrumento, aunque al revisarlo se llegó a la conclusión de que algunos ítems no reflejaban las creencias en términos de una relación de causalidad y que las opciones de respuesta presentadas en forma dicotómica reducían la posibilidad de que los estudiantes respondieran de una manera más cercana a su realidad. Objetivo: obtener las características psicométricas de una versión revisada y modificada del AEQ, adaptado previamente en México. Método: se trabajó con una muestra de 510 estudiantes universitarios, siguiendo las normas para el desarrollo y revisión de estudios instrumentales; mediante el empleo de análisis factorial confirmatorio y el análisis de validez concurrente. Resultados: la versión final del instrumento quedó integrada por 26 reactivos, agrupados en siete factores: desinhibición, confianza en sí mismo, reducción de la tensión, relajación, incremento de la sexualidad, interacción social y cambios psicofisiológicos; con índice general de Confiabilidad de .937. Discusión y conclusiones: posiblemente la revisión conceptual y operacional influyó en el reacomodo y la eliminación de reactivos en comparación con la versión adaptada previamente en nuestro país; sin embargo, los análisis muestran que las expectativas positivas guardan una relación con la frecuencia de consumo excesivo de alcohol. Se obtuvo una versión del AEQ más corta, con validez de contenido, factorial y concurrente, y un índice de confiabilidad aceptable para cada dimensión.

A test of expectancy-value theory in predicting alcohol consumption*

Background: Research on alcohol-related outcome expectancies has primarily focused on the likelihood of the anticipated effects, while comparatively little attention has been paid to their subjective evaluation. However, according to expectancy-value theory, the expectation that alcohol use will produce certain consequences and the evaluation of those consequences jointly and interactively determine an individual's decision to consume alcohol. Previous research on this issue was hampered by multiple regression strategies that are plagued by measurement error and low statistical power.Method: To overcome this limitation, we investigated expectancy-value interactions in predicting drinking variables by drawing on latent variable methodology using the five expectancy-value dimensions from the Comprehensive Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire. Expectancy-value models were tested in a sample of college students (N = 1053) and a sample of alcohol-dependent inpatients (N = 699).Results: Significant expectancy-value interactions emerged concerning social assertiveness among students as well as for aggression and tension reduction among alcohol-dependent inpatients. The relationship between expectancy and drinking was strongest for pronounced (either positive or negative) valuations of the effect. Effect sizes were small, however.Conclusions: The results are in partial agreement with basic premises of expectancy-value theory. However, this study also identifies limits to the universal validity of expectancy-value theory, given that prediction of alcohol use depends on the effect domains, alcohol outcome measures, and study populations.

When Habits Are Dangerous: Alcohol Expectancies and Habitual Decision Making Predict Relapse in Alcohol Dependence

BackgroundAddiction is supposedly characterized by a shift from goal-directed to habitual decision making, thus facilitating automatic drug intake. The two-step task allows distinguishing between these mechanisms by computationally modeling goal-directed and habitual behavior as model-based and model-free control. In addicted patients, decision making may also strongly depend upon drug-associated expectations. Therefore, we investigated model-based versus model-free decision making and its neural correlates as well as alcohol expectancies in alcohol-dependent patients and healthy controls and assessed treatment outcome in patients. MethodsNinety detoxified, medication-free, alcohol-dependent patients and 96 age- and gender-matched control subjects underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging during the two-step task. Alcohol expectancies were measured with the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire. Over a follow-up period of 48 weeks, 37 patients remained abstinent and 53 patients relapsed as indicated by the Alcohol Timeline Followback method. ResultsPatients who relapsed displayed reduced medial prefrontal cortex activation during model-based decision making. Furthermore, high alcohol expectancies were associated with low model-based control in relapsers, while the opposite was observed in abstainers and healthy control subjects. However, reduced model-based control per se was not associated with subsequent relapse. ConclusionsThese findings suggest that poor treatment outcome in alcohol dependence does not simply result from a shift from model-based to model-free control but is instead dependent on the interaction between high drug expectancies and low model-based decision making. Reduced model-based medial prefrontal cortex signatures in those who relapse point to a neural correlate of relapse risk. These observations suggest that therapeutic interventions should target subjective alcohol expectancies.

Propiedades psicométricas del Cuestionario de Expectativas hacia el consumo de alcohol (AEQ-A) en estudiantes de psicología de Mar del Plata, Argentina

The aim of this article was to analyze the psychometric properties of an adapted version of the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire Adolescents (AEQ-A) in university students from Mar del Plata city, Argentina. Expectancies about the effects of alcohol refer to the beliefs that people hold about the consequences of alcohol consumption on behavior. Expectancies have been related to drinking initiation and maintenance, and to habitual drinking patterns. Although several questionnaires have been developed to measure expectancies, the AEQ-A has been one of the most frequently used. Studies in different cultural contexts have shown that, given expectancies’ cultural variability, the questionnaire must be adapted to each particular context. A version of the AEQ-A previously validated in Mar del Plata, Argentina, was used, consisting of 40 items measured on a (true / false) dichotomous scale. The sample consisted of 1076 psychology students from the National University of Mar del Plata, Argentina. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyzes were performed. The factorial analysis resulted in six factors containing 37 items. Internal consistency of each subscale was adequate. Concurrent validity was satisfactory inasmuch as scores on the subscales about beliefs associated with positive effects of consumption in social situations relate to heavy episodic drinking. Instruments like this one to evaluate expectancies, will allow the study of psychosocial factors associated with consumption and provide useful information to develop prevention strategies.

Knowledge, Attitude and Expectancy on Alcohol among Selected Undergraduate Students of Bangalore with a View to Develop Structured Instructional Module

Alcoholic beverages are the oldest intoxicating drinks discovered and consumed by man. Its abuse kills millions of people, sends millions of victims to hospitals, necessitates millions of police arrests, breaks millions of marriages and homes and causes severe damage to industry and economy. This study was set out to examine the knowledge, attitude and expectancy of alcohol among 2000 undergraduate students selected by multistage stratified random sampling design. The data were collected by using College Drinking Attitude Scale and Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire standardised tools. Structured Instructional Module on Alcoholism among students was prepared. There was no statistical significant difference between the zone in terms of Knowledge (F=0-92, p<0.954).

Explicit and Implicit Positive Alcohol Expectancies in Problem and Non-Problem Drinkers: Differences Across Age Groups from Young Adolescence to Adulthood.

Aims: Recent studies with animal models showed that the stimulant and sedative effects of alcohol change during the adolescent period. In humans, the stimulant effects of ethanol are most often indirectly recorded through the measurement of explicit and implicit alcohol effect expectancies. However, it is unknown how such implicit and explicit expectancies evolve with age in humans during adolescence.Methods: Adolescent (13–16 year old), young adult (17–18 year old), and adult (35–55 year old) participants were recruited. On the basis of their score on the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT), they were classified as non-problem (AUDIT ≤ 7) or problem (AUDIT ≥ 11) drinkers. The participants completed the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire (AEQ) and performed two unipolar Implicit Association Test (IAT) to assess implicit associations between alcohol and the concepts of “stimulation” and “sedation”.Results: Problem drinkers from the three age groups reported significantly higher positive alcohol expectancies than non-problem drinkers on all AEQ subscales. Positive alcohol explicit expectancies also gradually decreased with age, with adolescent problem drinkers reporting especially high positive expectancies. This effect was statistically significant for all positive expectancies, with the exception of relaxation expectancies that were only close to statistical significance. In contrast, stimulation and sedation alcohol implicit associations were not significantly different between problem and non-problem drinkers and did not change with age.Conclusion: These results indicate that explicit positive alcohol effect expectancies predict current alcohol consumption levels, especially in adolescents. Positive alcohol expectancies also gradually decrease with age in the three cross-sectional groups of adolescents, young adults, and adults. This effect might be related to changes in the physiological response to alcohol.

Exploring substance group differences on the simultaneous alcohol and tobacco expectancy questionnaire in a young adult community

Exploring substance group differences on the simultaneous alcohol and tobacco expectancy questionnaire in a young adult community

Drinking experience uncovers genetic influences on alcohol expectancies across adolescence.

To test whether drinking onset moderates genetic and environmental contributions to individual differences in the etiology of alcohol expectancies across adolescence. Longitudinal twin design. Community sample from Los Angeles, CA, USA. A total of 1292 male and female twins, aged 11–18years, were assessed at 1 (n = 440), 2 (n = 587) or 3 (n = 265) occasions as part of the risk factors for the Antisocial Behavior Twin Study. Social behavioral (SB) alcohol expectancies were measured using an abbreviated version of the Social Behavioral subscale from the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire for adolescents (AEQ-A). Drinking onset was defined as >1 full drink of alcohol. Alcohol expectancies increased over age and the increase became more rapid following onset of drinking. The importance of genetic and environmental influences on SB scores varied with age and drinking status, such that variation prior to drinking onset was attributed solely to environmental influences, whereas all post-onset variation was attributed to genetic influences. Results did not differ significantly by sex. Only environmental factors explain beliefs about the social and behavioral consequences of alcohol use prior to drinking onset,whereas genetic factors explain an increasing proportion of the variance in these beliefs after drinking onset.

Binge Drinking, Reflection Impulsivity, and Unplanned Sexual Behavior: Impaired Decision‐Making in Young Social Drinkers

The repeated pattern of heavy intoxication followed by withdrawal from alcohol (i.e., "binge drinking") has been found to have substantial adverse effects on prefrontal neural systems associated with decision-making and impulse control. Repeated binge drinking has been linked to risky and unplanned sexual behavior; however few studies have examined the role of impulsivity and related cognitive processes in understanding this association. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between binge drinking, "reflection impulsivity" (deficits in gathering and evaluating information during decision-making), alcohol-related expectancies, and unplanned sexual behavior in a sample of young social drinkers. Ninety-two university students completed the alcohol use questionnaire (AUQ) to measure alcohol intake and binge drinking. Two groups (low-binge and high-binge) were generated from the AUQ data. The Information Sampling Task (IST) was used to measure reflection impulsivity; the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire (AEQ) for alcohol outcome expectancies; and an unplanned sexual behavior questionnaire, which asked about the number of unplanned sexual events. When compared to the low-binge drinking group, the high-binge drinkers had significantly more unplanned sexual encounters and were impaired on the IST, reflection-impulsivity task. They scored higher on the alcohol expectancy factors of sociability, risk and aggression, negative self-perception, and in particular liquid courage. In a regression analysis, number of unplanned sexual encounters, binge drinking score, and liquid courage were all significantly related. These results support the role of binge drinking in reduced impulse control and decision-making deficits. The findings indicate that high-binge drinkers demonstrate impairments on an impulse control task similar to that observed in dependent samples and this may be a factor in understanding the negative behavioral consequences associated with excessive alcohol use.

Predictors of hospitalization for alcohol use disorder in Korean men

This study was done to identify the patterns and significant predictors influencing hospitalization of Korean men for alcohol use disorder. A descriptive study design was utilized. Data were collected using self-report questionnaires from 143 inpatients who met the DSM-5 alcohol use disorder criteria and were receiving treatment and 157 social drinkers living in the community. The questionnaires included Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), Alcohol Problems, Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire (AEQ), Life Position, and The Korean version of the Children of Alcoholics Screening Test (CAST-K). Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-test, χ²-test, F-test, Pearson correlation coefficients, and logistic regression with forward stepwise. AUDIT had significant correlations with alcohol problems, alcohol expectancy, and parents' alcoholism. In logistic regression, factors significantly affecting hospitalization were divorced (OR=4.18, 95% CI: 1.28-13.71), graduation from elementary school (OR=28.50, 95% CI: 8.07-100.69), middle school (OR=6.66, 95% CI: 2.21-20.09), high school (OR=6.31, 95% CI: 2.59-15.36), drinking alone (OR=9.07, 95% CI: 1.78-46.17), family history of alcoholism (OR=2.41, 95% CI: 1.11-5.25), interpersonal relationship problems (OR=1.28, 95% CI:1.17-1.41), and sexual enhancement of alcohol expectancy (OR=0.83, 95% CI: 0.72-0.94), which accounted for 53% of the variance. Results suggest that interpersonal relationship programs and customized cognitive programs for social drinkers in the community are needed to decreased alcohol related hospitalization in Korean men.

Assessing the Stimulant and Sedative Effects of Alcohol With Explicit and Implicit Measures in a Balanced Placebo Design

Alcohol consumption is characterized by bi-phasic stimulant and sedative effects. In previous studies, various tools were used to assess these effects, including expectancy questionnaires, implicit association tests, and self-report scales. The present study was aimed at clarifying the relationships between these measures. Three different measures were used to directly or indirectly assess the stimulant and sedative effects of alcohol in 61 undergraduate students. The participants completed the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire (AEQ) and performed two unipolar Implicit Association Tasks to assess implicit associations between alcohol and the concepts of "stimulation" and "sedation." The levels of alcohol consumption also were recorded by means of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test. An alcohol (0.4 g/kg) or placebo challenge was then administered using a balanced placebo design. After alcohol/placebo administration, the participants completed the Biphasic Alcohol Effects Scale (BAES). Alcohol consumption significantly correlated with AEQ alcohol explicit expectancies of arousal and relaxation, whereas no significant correlations were obtained with the implicit associations. There were positive correlations between AEQ and BAES subscales, especially for the arousal subscale of the AEQ. Self-reported sedation recorded with the BAES was significantly affected by what the participants believed that they had drunk but not by the actual consumption of alcohol. These findings indicate that alcohol explicit expectancies of arousal measured with the AEQ best predict current alcohol consumption. Regarding explicit measures of alcohol-induced stimulation and sedation, BAES sub-scales seem to be more affected by alcohol drinking expectations than by actual alcohol consumption.

Compensatory and non‐compensatory multidimensional randomized item response models

Randomized response (RR) models are often used for analysing univariate randomized response data and measuring population prevalence of sensitive behaviours. There is much empirical support for the belief that RR methods improve the cooperation of the respondents. Recently, RR models have been extended to measure individual unidimensional behaviour. An extension of this modelling framework is proposed to measure compensatory or non-compensatory multiple sensitive factors underlying the randomized item response process. A confirmatory multidimensional randomized item response theory model (MRIRT) is proposed for the analysis of multivariate RR data by modelling the response process and specifying structural relationships between sensitive behaviours and background information. A Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithm is developed to estimate simultaneously the parameters of the MRIRT model. The model extension enables the computation of individual true item response probabilities, estimates of individuals' sensitive behaviour on different domains, and their relationships with background variables. An MRIRT analysis is presented of data from a college alcohol problem scale, measuring alcohol-related socio-emotional and community problems, and alcohol expectancy questionnaire, measuring alcohol-related sexual enhancement expectancies. Students were interviewed via direct or RR questioning. Scores of alcohol-related problems and expectancies are significantly higher for the group of students questioned using the RR technique. Alcohol-related problems and sexual enhancement expectancies are positively moderately correlated and vary differently across gender and universities.

Spirituality, religiosity and alcohol related beliefs among college students

The aim of the present study was to examine spirituality, religiosity, and alcohol-related beliefs among college students. The sample consisted of 236 college students – 120 girls and 116 boys. The age range of the sample was between 18 and 21 years. The tools used in the study were Personal Information Data Sheet, Scale for Assessment of Attitudes toward Drinking and Alcoholism (SAADA), Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire – Adult Form (AEQ), Beliefs and Values Scale (BVS), and The Religious Background and Behavior Questionnaire (RBBQ). The data were analyzed using t-test and Pearson's product moment correlation. Higher spirituality, religiosity, and both the components of religiosity – God Consciousness and Formal Practices, were all associated with less acceptance of drinking and alcoholism. Positive affect and higher spirituality were both associated with religiosity as well as its components. A positive correlation was found among religiosity and both its components. The results revealed gender differences in that the God Consciousness component of religiosity was found to be higher in girls, but not boys, who did not have exposure to alcohol through prior use or alcohol use in family. The implications for primary prevention for college students are discussed.

Children's alcohol cognitions prior to drinking onset: Discrepant patterns from implicit and explicit measures.

Prior to drinking onset, children report stronger negative versus positive beliefs on self-report alcohol expectancy questionnaires, with some attenuation of this negativity as they transition into adolescence. Traditional alcohol expectancy assessments, however, capture endorsement of deliberative propositions about drinking outcomes. Measurement of implicit alcohol associations may elucidate automatic evaluations, clarifying the role of nondeliberative cognition in the initiation of alcohol use among youth. Few studies have assessed implicit alcohol cognition among children and younger adolescents, with inconsistent findings regarding the nature of these automatic associations within and between age groups. Eighty-nine 3rd and 4th graders and 91 7th and 8th graders completed an alcohol expectancy measure and two unipolar alcohol Implicit Association Tests (IAT) measuring positive and negative alcohol associations independently. On the explicit measure older compared with younger participants rated positive drinking outcomes as more likely and negative outcomes as less likely. Older compared with younger students were also more neutral/moderate in their evaluations of positive drinking outcomes. On the IATs, scores for the full sample indicated negative alcohol associations, and Negative IAT scores were higher for older compared with younger participants. However, the valence of implicit alcohol associations was qualified by the order of explicit versus implicit assessment; for those who completed the IATs prior to the explicit expectancy measure, alcohol associations were positive. Findings replicate and extend prior research conducted with preonset youth. Implications regarding the role of automatic and controlled processes in drinking onset and directions for future work on children's alcohol cognition are discussed.

Patterns of alcohol expectancies and alcohol use across age and gender

AimsTo investigate the relationship between alcohol expectancies and alcohol use in a community sample as a function of age and gender. MethodsThe study is based on a national probability sample of 6467 German adults. Respondents were grouped into five age groups ranging from 18 to 59 years. A brief version of the Comprehensive Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire was used to assess alcohol expectancies. Alcohol use was assessed by the number of drinking days during the past month and the number of drinks on an average drinking day. ResultsPrior to conducting group comparisons, measurement invariance across age and gender was established. Latent mean level comparisons showed that the endorsement of both positive and negative expectancies almost linearly decreased with increasing age. However, this decrease was not reflected in alcohol consumption patterns. Structural analysis of the expectancy factors and drinking variables showed that the predictive power of expectancies varied by age and gender. Particularly, expectancies related to social assertiveness and sexual enhancement were strong predictors only in younger, but not in older respondents. Conversely, expectancies related to tension reduction and impairment were the most important predictors of drinking in respondents older than 30 years, but not in younger age groups. Additionally, the onset and course of age-related changes in expectancies was moderated by gender. ConclusionsThe present study demonstrates substantial age-related changes in the relationship between alcohol expectancies and alcohol use. Moreover, the profile of alcohol expectancies appears to be more important than their absolute strength.