Albert Dock Research Articles

Ecosystem engineers enhance the multifunctionality of an urban novel ecosystem: Population persistence and ecosystem resilience since the 1980s

In degraded urban habitats, nature-based solutions aim to enhance ecosystem functioning and service provision. Bivalves are increasingly reintroduced to urban environments to enhance water quality through biofiltration, yet their long-term sustainability remains uncertain. Following the restoration of the disused South Docks in Liverpool in the 1980s, natural colonization of mussels rapidly improved dock-basin water quality and supported diverse taxa, including other filter feeders. While the initial colonization phase has been well documented, there has been limited published research since the mid-1990s, despite ongoing routine water quality monitoring. Here, we assessed the long-term persistence of mussel populations, their associated biodiversity, and physico-chemical parameters of the water in Queens and Albert Docks by comparing historical (1980s to 1990s) and contemporary data from follow-up surveys (2012,2022). Following an initial period of poor water quality (high contamination and turbidity, low oxygen), the natural colonization of mussels from Albert Dock in 1988 extended throughout the South Docks. By the mid-1990s, the environment of the South Docks and its mussel populations had stabilized. The dock walls were dominated by mussels which provided important complex secondary substrate for invertebrates and macroalgae. Surveys conducted in 2012 and 2022 confirmed the continued dominance of mussels and estimates of mussel biofiltration rates confirm that mussels are continuing to contribute to maintaining water quality. A decline in salinity was observed in both docks in 2022, with evidence of recovery. While these ecosystems appear relatively stable, careful management of the hydrological regime is crucial to ensuring the persistence of mussels and resilient ecosystem service provision through biofiltration.

Does Cultural Regeneration Work? : The Tate Gallery Liverpool and the Greater Albert Dock Re-development

Does Cultural Regeneration Work? : The Tate Gallery Liverpool and the Greater Albert Dock Re-development

Evolution of heritage and development in Liverpool's waterfront over 40 years

The recent delisting of Liverpool’s World Heritage Site has highlighted the adverse impacts of ongoing urban developments on the city’s heritage. This study aims to address the critical question of how Liverpool can safeguard its heritage following the loss of its World Heritage status. As this status withdrawal implies a lack of international policy consideration, it raises important questions: What additional measures should be implemented? How could we reassess Liverpool's heritage in this new context? To tackle these issues, we investigate the changing relationship between safeguarding heritage and urban development on Liverpool Waterfront’s Historic Urban Landscape over the past 40 years. This study analyses the impact of developments on Liverpool’s heritage values, specifically focusing on Integrity, Authenticity, and Outstanding Universal Value. By employing a novel, top-down heritage impact assessment methodology, we evaluate the influence of urban and architectural developments on these values. This methodology is distinguished by its comprehensive comparative analysis of diverse elements drawn from heritage policy documents, spanning both tangible and intangible domains. In addition, we conducted interviews with experts familiar with Liverpool's heritage context to deepen our understanding of developmental impacts. The analysis framework comprises three case study areas and their associated developments: the adaptive reuse of the Albert Dock Complex (1981–1988), the Pier Head Developments (2007–2013), and the Stanley Dock Conservation Area (2021 onwards). The findings indicate that adaptive reuse schemes have been reasonably successful in preserving heritage values, whereas certain urban interventions have had detrimental effects. This study underscores the need for stricter regulations and broader stakeholder involvement to protect Liverpool's heritage. Further research is recommended, incorporating more development case studies and examining successful urban interventions in other heritage cities, to strengthen Liverpool’s heritage safeguarding strategies amidst evolving urban development pressures.

Image-based research methods for mapping tourist behaviour: smart photos

ABSTRACT Conventional research methods for understanding tourists’ behaviours need to be more practical and accurate when tracking tourists’ movements within a destination. In recent years, technological development has offered advanced technical approaches for data collection and analysis. Taking account of the tourist experience in post-industrial landscapes, this study introduces an image-based methodology to explore tourists’ movements at industrial heritage sites. Preliminary results are presented, using Liverpool’s Royal Albert Dock as an example of detecting tourists’ movement through use of a drone. The findings demonstrate that the selected method – Smart Photo – effectively maps tourists’ behaviour and movements, and that this provides researchers with a simple, fast, and accurate data collection and analysis tool.

The Furling of the Sails

The Furling of the Sails Shelley Piasecka Click for larger view View full resolution Shelley Piasecka. Photo courtesy of Shelley Piasecka. On a rather overcast, drizzly day last June, I found myself boarding the Charles W. Morgan, a beautifully preserved nineteenth-century whaling ship. Launched in 1841, with 37 whaling voyages to her name, her current home is Mystic Seaport Museum in Connecticut. Impressive by any maritime standards, she is the last remaining wooden ship of her kind. In 2014, following a period of restoration, the Charles W. Morgan embarked on her 38th voyage, visiting seaports throughout New England. Once involved in [End Page 183] the hunting of whales, she is now an ambassador for ocean sustainability and sea life conservation, a remarkable change of tack for a ship of her history. To borrow Melville's description of the Pequod, I thought her a noble craft. Mary K. Bercaw Edwards, Associate Professor of English and Maritime Studies at the University of Connecticut, arranged the visit to Mystic Seaport Museum as a post-conference day trip for participants of "Melville's Origins: The Twelfth International Melville Conference," a week-long event of scholarly papers, keynote talks, film-showings, round-table discussions, poetry readings, and guided walks of Manhattan to mark the bicentennial of Melville's birth. Before our visit to Mystic, we also enjoyed an evening drinks reception on the Wavertree, an imposing iron-constructed cargo ship built in 1885, and a tour of the Merchant's House, the home of the Tredwells, an affluent New York family. I had attended the conference to join a panel on adaptations of Moby-Dick chaired by Dennis Berthold and was fortunate to present alongside the eminent Samuel Otter, Robert K. Wallace, and Alex Benson. Earlier that month, I had staged an adaptation of Moby-Dick on the Zebu, a brigantine under restoration at the Albert Dock, Liverpool. In 1839, Melville arrived in Liverpool on the St. Lawrence, a merchant ship sailing out of New York. He would write in the novel Redburn, "Sailors love this Liverpool; and upon voyages to distant parts of the globe, will be continually dilating upon its charms and attractions, and extolling above all other seaports in the world" (138). Given Melville's association with the city, particularly with the waterfront, the Zebu seemed a particularly befitting site. This said, she is a tall ship and not a whaler. The Charles W. Morgan, therefore, offered an unparalleled opportunity to see at first-hand an actual whaleship. I was particularly interested in the tryworks, the blubber room, the forecastle, the quarter-deck, and the cabin table, all key references in the novel. From an adaptor's perspective, to test the weight of a harpoon, to run one's fingers across the warm wooden panelling, to lean over the bulwarks, and to lie down on a cramped bunk is to understand the source text in an entirely new and embodied way. This idea came to the fore later that morning. We'd been invited to row a whaleboat and after a remarkably smooth ride out on the river, thanks to my fellow Melvillean oarsmen/women, we pulled up alongside the blackened hull of the Charles W. Morgan. By now, the drizzle had turned into a very determined downpour. Far from spoiling the experience, the weather seemed perfectly in tune with our surroundings. I realised that I hadn't taken into consideration the sheer size of a whaling ship nor had I appreciated fully the dangers of whaling. I knew this on an intellectual level, of course. But, somehow, being on the water, dwarfed by the ship, underpinned my reading of the novel. I thought of Pip's nervous lowering on that fateful day and of Melville's observations that all [End Page 184] men live under a shadow: "All men live enveloped in whale lines. All are born with halters round their necks; but it is only when caught in the swift, sudden turn of death, that mortals realize the subtle, ever-present perils of life" (281). After a lunch of clam chowder (naturally), I headed to Greenmanville Church for an entertaining performance of "Moby-Dick in Minutes" by the...

Liverpool's Urban Imaginary: The Beatles and Tourism Fanscapes

Destinations continually seek creative ways to market their destination by celebrating popular histories or individuals. For Liverpool, there is one band with such international recognition that the city seeks to capitalize on. Popular Beatles fanscapes are woven into the fabric and narrative of Liverpool and they are part of the city’s unique music identity. Geographers (Kruse), destination marketers (Whang, Yong, and Ko), popular culture experts (Julien), and cultural historians (Stark) have conducted previous academic research acknowledging the Beatles. However, no study has positioned the Beatles alongside literatures that unite tourism with authenticity and fanscapes using co-constructed autoethnography. This paper utilizes a method of autoethnography to critically position meanings that align with place identity and authenticity, along with tangible and intangible heritage—thereby creating sentiment of popular memory. The four members of the Beatles, John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, are from Liverpool and in many ways are synonymous with the city as they are embedded in the story of Liverpool since they became famous in the 1960s (Cohen). To attract Beatles fans from around the globe, destination managers, planners, and private stakeholders have found creative ways to display and disseminate sites and places of and for the Beatles. Notable spaces and places around Liverpool include: The Cavern Quarter, Hard Days Night Hotel, The Beatles Story (in the Albert Dock), John, Paul, Ringo, and George Statues in Pier Head, Magical Mystery Tour, Penny Lane and Strawberry Fields, John Lennon Airport, as well as numerous features hidden in the city, each memorialize the Beatles as part of the city’s urban imaginary and popular music culture. This study critically explores these spaces and places of popular fandom, developed as an autoethnography (of the authors who are Beatles fans and new Liverpool residents). I (first-author) critically reflect on experiences as they relate to tourism and Liverpool’s urban imaginary. The co-authors (second-author and third-author) help reinforce, confirm, and challenge place meanings, popular imaginaries, and the consumption of the Beatles. Conceptually this paper contributes to the popular culture studies literature by focusing on a band, fanscapes and the urban imaginary, using a critical self-reflective approach and personal experiences while referring to academic literature on placemaking and authenticity.

Lithology of sediment core RAD, Royal Albert Dock, United Kingdom

Lithology of sediment core RAD, Royal Albert Dock, United Kingdom

Site Selection Appraisal for Tidal Turbine Development in the River Mersey

This paper used a specialist software package to produce a detailed model of the River Mersey estuary, which can be subjected to a range of simulated tidal conditions. The aim of this research was to use the validated model to identify the optimal location for the positioning of a tidal turbine. Progress was made identifying a new optimal site for power generation using velocity data produced from simulations conducted using the MIKE 3 software. This process resulted in the identification of site 8, which sits mid-river between the Morpeth Dock and the Albert Dock, being identified as the favoured location for tidal power generation in the River Mersey. Further analysis of the site found that a 17.2-m diameter single rota multidirectional turbine with a 428-kW-rated capacity could produce 1.12 GWh annually.

Privatisation of the Production of Public Space

Privatisation of the Production of Public Space

Urban branding and place as a quality product: innovations in the urban experience

PurposeStarting from these premises, the aim of the paper is illustrating the role of experience in urban regeneration projects and to explore how the experience of high quality product luxury places can be sustainable with existent place identity or new place identity to be suitably created.Design/methodology/approachThe experience of a place may become an integral part of a product experience. The enhancement of products (Splendiani, 2013): assumes a meaning which goes beyond the simple sale of material goods. It covers the supply of complex experiences … enriched by intangible elements capable to stimulate and involve the sensory and experiential component of consumption. It deals with attracting people to the places where local products are made by inserting the products in the most extensive offers covering the entire territorial system of reference The experience may also be used for the spectacolarisation of a place and its commercialisation, as in the case of “brandscapes” (Klingman, 2007). In this case, it is important not to clone every place everywhere because they could inevitably resemble each other without be able to really engage the people who move into them (Lehtovuori, 2010). The methodology approach is based on a wide bibliography and internet research based on the main terms connected to the topics of the paper, including experience, place identity, quality product, regeneration; on case studies – even though not illustrated – concerning places of interest for the research topics, such as: Hafencity in Hamburg, the Albert Dock in Liverpool, Abondaibarra area in Bilbao.FindingsThe planning of places of quality product cannot be separated from interpretation of the territory as a cultural system resulting from an ensemble of historical, economic and social processes. In such a system, the contribution of the cultural factor must be considered propulsive, not only for its qualitative meaning but also, and especially, for the role of “trait d’union” of a number of actions taken to protect and enhance places.Originality/valueThe increasing importance of the use of experience in the urban regeneration process is leading cities to be involved in constructing suitable images and symbols of their transformed areas to meet the new trends, also according with luxurious ones. Even though globalisation is one of the main dangers in innovative itineraries, the proper planning of quality architecture and public spaces could prevent it by creating a suitable mix between innovation and culture.

The Curious Case of Sherlock Hare: Race, class, and mental health in British Burma

Abstract: In 1891, Sherlock Hare was classified a “criminal lunatic” and removed from British Burma. The exact nature of Hare’s insanity is vague; in the official records of the trial, doctors contradict themselves, spurious witnesses are produced, and evidence of mental illness is flimsy at best. Hare was apparently so convincing in his sane moments that the captain of the Elton allowed him to disembark before reaching the Albert Dock, where asylum officials were waiting to take him into custody. The resulting embarrassment for the British government led to an inquiry into the procedure for European persons deemed criminally insane in the colonies. The story of Sherlock Hare – his arrest, evaluation, incarceration, and subsequent removal to England – reveals not only a great deal about Victorian perspectives toward mental health, but also the relevance of race and class in the treatment of afflicted persons in the colonies. British perspectives toward race and class in the metropole scripted the experience of each person who entered the fledgling apparatus of mental health care in British Burma.

The Albert Dock Hospital, London: the original site (in 1899) of Tropical Medicine as a new discipline

The London School of Tropical Medicine, and indeed the ‘ new’ discipline of tropical medicine, originated in 1899 at the Albert Dock Hospital — situated in London's east-end. The founder of the discipline was Patrick Manson — with a great deal of political assistance from the British Secretary of State for the Colonies (Joseph Chamberlain). The hospital (originally opened in 1890) was rebuilt in 1937–1938 and ultimately demolished in 1993.

‘Tropical’ cases admitted to the Albert Dock Hospital in the early years of the London School of Tropical Medicine

‘Tropical’ cases admitted to the Albert Dock Hospital in the early years of the London School of Tropical Medicine

Case history of a piled embankment in London's Docklands

Abstract Innovative geotechnical solutions were required to overcome the difficult logistics of construction phasing and poor ground conditions at the Royal Albert Dock Spine Road in London's Docklands. The ground conditions comprised up to 7 m of variable fill overlying soft compressible alluvium. To control settlement, a piled raft solution was designed to support the road embankment on either side of the conventionally piled Docklands Light Railway trough. The raft, comprising a granular mattress reinforced with layers of geogrid, was designed to transfer about 85% of the embankment loading onto the pile caps. This novel load transfer platform to the piled embankment produced a stable and economical foundation solution on poor ground while enabling a fast overall construction programme of 12 months to be achieved. The foundation options for the embankment and the subsequent design philosophy for the geogrid reinforced piled embankment are reviewed, together with a description of its construction.

George Carmichael Low FRCP: twelfth President of the Society and underrated pioneer of tropical medicine

George Carmichael Low, like so many early pioneers of Tropical Medicine, had his origin(s) in Scotland. Following a distinguished undergraduate (and early postgraduate) career, he joined Dr Patrick Manson at the newly established London School of Tropical Medicine in 1899. His first major contribution to the speciality (in 1900) was to demonstrate filariae in the proboscis sheath of mosquitoes which had been infected with Filaria bancrofti in Australia, using a technique recently learned in Heidelberg and Vienna. Shortly afterwards, he led an expedition to the Roman Campagna; this established beyond doubt mosquito-transmission of Plasmodium vivax infection to Homo sapiens. In 1901–1902, Low undertook a demanding tour of the Caribbean where he made important contributions to the understanding of the filariases, and assisted in malaria eradication. In 1902 he led a small team (the Royal Society's first sleeping sickness expedition) to investigate the ‘negro lethargy’ which had emerged in epidemic proportions on the northern shores of Lake Victoria in East Africa. This expedition narrowly failed to establish the aetiological agent ( Trypanosoma sp.) of this disease. Following his return to London, Low became superintendent of the Albert Dock Hospital and from then onwards devoted most of his career to the London School of Tropical Medicine and the Hospital for Tropical Diseases (where he became senior physician). He wrote extensively, in addition to his clinical, teaching and administrative commitments. Perhaps Low's major contribution, however, was in establishing the Society (later Royal) of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene in 1907, with Mr (later Sir) James Cantlie. He devoted a vast amount of time and energy to this Society, becoming the 12th President in 1929–1933. He was largely instrumental in acquiring 26 Portland Place, London (Manson House) for the Society in 1931; the newly established headquarters was officially opened by the Prince of Wales in 1932. Low was also one of the most distinguished ornithologists of his day. Although the magnitude of his contribution to tropical medicine is unquestionable, and although he did receive certain academic honours, Low did not receive a civil honour and was not accepted in the front line of pioneers of the discipline—either in his lifetime or today; the reason(s) for this remain far from clear.

The “Emigrants to a New World” Gallery at the Merseyside Maritime Museum, Liverpool

THE “EMIGRANTS TO A NEW WORLD” GALLERY AT THE MERSEYSIDE MARITIME MUSEUM, LIVERPOOL D A V II)|. J E R E M Y The Merseyside Maritime Museum, one component of the National Museums and Galleries on Merseyside, is devoted to recording and re-creating Liverpool’s role as the “western gateway” of Europe.1 Trade in commodities and in people had been the port’s business for 300 years. All that rapidly ended in the 1970s and 1980s. World depression saw the 5 miles of docks, basins, and wharves along the Mersey waterfront progressively abandoned. As one response to the precipitous decline of port and city, Margaret Thatcher’s Conserva­ tive government and the EEC have directed £50 million into the restoration of the Albert Dock, a compact but impressive section of the 5-mile complex. Around the four sides of the dock the massive five-story 19th-century warehouses have had their warm orange brick repointed, their cast-iron pillars checked and painted, their stone­ work cleaned, and the stone blocks of cobbled yards renewed. On three sides of the warehouse quadrangle, a property company is letting the ground floor premises as shops and the upper floors as apartments. The fourth side of the Albert Dock warehousing forms the main site of the Merseyside Maritime Museum—other museum properties and two ships lie opposite, around the Canning Half-Tide Basin (see fig. 1). The main museum, representing an investment of £10 million, has 130,000 square feet of space on six floors, 60 percent open to the public. Its collections comprise primarily artifacts and archives (in­ cluding some important company archives). Its major exhibit is the Dr. Jeremy, senior lecturer in economic history at Manchester Polytechnic, was formerly visiting research associate at the Smithsonian Institution, curator of the Merrimack Valley Textile Museum (now Museum of zKmerican Textile History), research fellow in the Business History Unit at the London School of Economics, and editor of the Dictionary of Business Biography. He is the author of Transatlantic Industrial Resolution: The Diffusion of Textile Technologies between Britain and America. 1790— 1830s (Cambridge, Mass., 1981). 'I am grateful to Mike Stammers, keeper, and Gordon Read, archivist, at the Merseyside Maritime Museum for discussing their collections with me when I visited the museum on July 13, 1989.©1990 bv the Society for the History of Technology. All rights reserved. 0040-165X/90/3102-0006$01.00 278 “Emigrants to a New World” 279 Fit;. 1.—The Merseyside Maritime Museum’s main building on the Canning HalfTide Basin and (rear) Albert Dock in Liverpool. (Photos courtesy of Merseyside Maritime Museum.) “Emigrants to a New World” gallery. The purpose of this permanent gallery, located in the basement and opened in 1986 at a cost of£350,000, is to recapture the common elements in the experience of the nine million people who left Europe for North America and Australasia through the port of Liverpool. Reflecting this experience, the gallery is organized in three sections. The introduction outlines who the emigrants were, where they came from, why they wanted to go abroad, how they reached Liverpool, what happened to them there, and the kinds of ships they sailed on. The centerpiece presents a typical 19th-century Liverpool quayside street lined by emigrants’ boardinghouses, a transit shed, and, beyond it, the replica of a 40-foot section of the steerage accommodation on board a mid-19th-century emigrant vessel. Lrom street and steerage the visitor moves to the third section, which treats the emigrant’s vicissitudes in the New World. In this last section there is an interactive computer that visitors are invited to use if they are interested in finding out about their ancestors’ migration through Liverpool; this is supplemented by three publications on sale in the well-stocked museum bookshop on the 280 DavidJ. Jeremy ground floor.2 Accompanying the exhibit are a small guide3 and a packet of facsimile documents (and transcripts).1 How successful is the exhibit? At least two levels have to be evaluated: research and presentation. Emigration research has fo­ cused on three aspects of the phenomenon: motivations, networks of distribution, and adjustment to new economic and cultural condi­ tions. The “Emigrants...

The "Emigrants to a New World" Gallery at the Merseyside Maritime Museum, Liverpool

The Merseyside Maritime Museum, one component of the National Museums and Galleries on Merseyside, is devoted to recording and re-creating Liverpool's role as the western gateway of Europe.' Trade in commodities and in people had been the port's business for 300 years. All that rapidly ended in the 1970s and 1980s. World depression saw the 5 miles of docks, basins, and wharves along the Mersey waterfront progressively abandoned. As one response to the precipitous decline of port and city, Margaret Thatcher's Conservative government and the EEC have directed ?50 million into the restoration of the Albert Dock, a compact but impressive section of the 5-mile complex. Around the four sides of the dock the massive five-story 19th-century warehouses have had their warm orange brick repointed, their cast-iron pillars checked and painted, their stonework cleaned, and the stone blocks of cobbled yards renewed. On three sides of the warehouse quadrangle, a property company is letting the ground floor premises as shops and the upper floors as apartments. The fourth side of the Albert Dock warehousing forms the main site of the Merseyside Maritime Museum-other museum properties and two ships lie opposite, around the Canning Half-Tide Basin (see fig. 1). The main museum, representing an investment of ?10 million, has 130,000 square feet of space on six floors, 60 percent open to the public. Its collections comprise primarily artifacts and archives (including some important company archives). Its major exhibit is the

Arris and Gale Lecturer, Royal College of Surgeons, 1962; Hunterian Professor, Royal College of Surgeons, 1970; Consultant Orthopaedic Surgeon, Harold Wood Hospital and Brentwood District Hospital, Essex. Lately Consultant Orthopaedic Surgeon, Albert Dock (Seamen's) Hospital, London. 10 × 7 ¾ inH. Graham Stack, The Palmar Fascia £8·00, Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh and London (1973), p. 236.

Arris and Gale Lecturer, Royal College of Surgeons, 1962; Hunterian Professor, Royal College of Surgeons, 1970; Consultant Orthopaedic Surgeon, Harold Wood Hospital and Brentwood District Hospital, Essex. Lately Consultant Orthopaedic Surgeon, Albert Dock (Seamen's) Hospital, London. 10 × 7 ¾ inH. Graham Stack, The Palmar Fascia £8·00, Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh and London (1973), p. 236.

Arris and Gale Lecturer, Royal College of Surgeons, 1962; Hunterian Professor, Royal College of Surgeons, 1970; Consultant Orthopaedic Surgeon, Harold Wood Hospital and Brentwood District Hospital, Essex. Lately Consultant Orthopaedic Surgeon, Albert Dock (Seamen's) Hospital, London. 10 × 7 ¾ inH. Graham Stack, The Palmar Fascia F.R.C.S. £8·00, Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh and London (1973), p. 236.

Arris and Gale Lecturer, Royal College of Surgeons, 1962; Hunterian Professor, Royal College of Surgeons, 1970; Consultant Orthopaedic Surgeon, Harold Wood Hospital and Brentwood District Hospital, Essex. Lately Consultant Orthopaedic Surgeon, Albert Dock (Seamen's) Hospital, London. 10 × 7 ¾ inH. Graham Stack, The Palmar Fascia F.R.C.S. £8·00, Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh and London (1973), p. 236.

Synopsis of Tropical Medicine

Journal Article Synopsis of Tropical Medicine Get access Synopsis of Tropical Medicine. By Sir Manson-Bahr Philip, G.M.G., D.S.O., M.D., F.R.C.P. Senior Physician to the Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Royal Albert Dock and Tilbury Hospitals; Consulting Physician in Tropical Diseases to the Dreadnought Seamen's Hospital, London; Director, Division of Clinical Tropical Medicine, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine; Consulting Physician to the Colonial Office and Crown Agents for the Colonies; Consultant in Tropical Medicine to the Admiralty and to the Royal Air Force: Lumleian Lecturer, Royal College of Physicians, 1941. Cloth. Pp. 238, with 5 plates. $2.50. Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Company, 1943. American Journal of Clinical Pathology, Volume 14, Issue 8, 1 August 1944, Page 459, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcp/14.8.459 Published: 01 August 1944