Alaskan Crude Oil Research Articles

Evaluation of vis-NIR reflectance spectroscopy sensitivity to weathering for enhanced assessment of oil contaminated soils

This study investigated the sensitivity of visible near-infrared spectroscopy (vis-NIR) to discriminate between fresh and weathered oil contaminated soils. The performance of random forest (RF) and partial least squares regression (PLSR) for the estimation of total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) throughout the time was also explored. Soil samples (n = 13) with 5 different textures of sandy loam, sandy clay loam, clay loam, sandy clay and clay were collected from 10 different locations across the Cranfield University's Research Farm (UK). A series of soil mesocosms was then set up where each soil sample was spiked with 10 ml of Alaskan crude oil (equivalent to 8450 mg/kg), allowed to equilibrate for 48 h (T2 d) and further kept at room temperature (21 °C). Soils scanning was carried out before spiking (control TC) and then after 2 days (T2 d) and months 4 (T4 m), 8 (T8 m), 12 (T12 m), 16 (T16 m), 20 (T20 m), 24 (T24 m), whereas gas chromatography mass spectroscopy (GC–MS) analysis was performed on T2 d, T4 m, T12 m, T16 m, T20 m, and T24 m. Soil scanning was done simultaneously using an AgroSpec spectrometer (305 to 2200 nm) (tec5 Technology for Spectroscopy, Germany) and Analytical Spectral Device (ASD) spectrometer (350 to 2500 nm) (ASDI, USA) to assess and compare their sensitivity and response against GC–MS data. Principle component analysis (PCA) showed that ASD performed better than tec5 for discriminating weathered versus fresh oil contaminated soil samples. The prediction results proved that RF models outperformed PLSR and resulted in coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.92, ratio of prediction deviation (RPD) of 3.79, and root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) of 108.56 mg/kg. Overall, the results demonstrate that vis–NIR is a promising tool for rapid site investigation of weathered oil contamination in soils and for TPH monitoring without the need of collecting soil samples and lengthy hydrocarbon extraction for further quantification analysis.

Charles Swithinbank

Charles Swithinbank

A structure for supply‐chain information flows and its application to the Alaskan crude oil supply chain

An effective supply chain requires a smoothly operating information system. Accurate information must flow among the links in a timely, coordinated fashion, which minimizes distortion. The system must incorporate supply‐and‐demand information, and constantly changing information about real world events that affect the chain. This paper provides a structure for these flows through a data flow diagram (DFD) and with a case study of its application to the Alaskan North Slope Oil (ANS) supply chain. The properties of this DFD are presented for push, pull and hybrid push/pull supply chains. Management can use the DFD approach to improve supply‐chain operations. Information flows can be rationalized and streamlined and feedback loops can be defined to measure performance. IT professionals can apply the generic nature of the DFD to a wide variety of logistics activities, including warehouse and carrier operations.

Lifting the Alaskan Oil Export Ban: An Intervention Analysis

In this paper we examine the price effects on crude oils of removing the U.S. export ban on Alaskan North Slope crude oil in 1996. We estimate the long-run impact of removing the export ban through the use of a time series intervention analysis. The results indicate that Alaskan crude oil prices increased between $0.98 and $1.30 on the West Coast spot market relative to prices of comparable crude oils as a result of removing the export ban. However, we find no evidence that West Coast prices for refined oil products—regular unleaded gasoline, diesel fuel, and jet fuel—increased as a result of lifting the ban.

Oil bioremediation using insoluble nitrogen source

Oil bioremediation is limited by the availability of nitrogen and phosphorous, which are needed by the bacteria and not present in sufficient amounts in hydrocarbons. The supply of these two essential elements as water-soluble salts presents several problems. These include the rapid dilution of the salts in the large volumes of polluted land or water and their utilization by other bacteria that do not degrade oil. In addition, increasing the concentration of mobile nitrogen creates further environmental problems. The use of hydrophobic sources of nitrogen and phosphorous that have a low water solubility can overcome these problems. We have studied one such compound, F-1, that is not used by most bacteria but serves as a good nitrogen and phosphorous source for those bacterial strains that are capable of utilizing it. We have shown that bacteria using F-1 do not cross-feed other bacterial strains. Moreover, when the concentration of the pollutant is sufficiently reduced, the multiplication of the bacteria slows down until they become a negligible fraction of the bacterial population. Chemical analysis indicated that following a 28-day treatment of Alaskan crude oil, most of the hydrocarbons, including polycyclic aromatics, are degraded to undetectable levels. The C 34 and C 35 components were also degraded, although their degradation was not completed within this time period. In treatment of a sandy beach that was accidentally polluted with crude heavy oil, about 90% degradation was obtained within about 4 months at an outside average temperature of 5–10 °C.

Effect of brine composition on recovery of Moutray crude oil by waterflooding

The effect of brine composition on oil recovery by waterflooding is under investigation. Wettability states of cores used in this study were achieved by aging with Moutray crude oil. Two brine compositions were tested, 4% NaCl + 0.5% CaCl 2 and 2% CaCl 2; they are referred to as Brine 1 and Brine 2, respectively. Tests in which the same brine was used throughout are referred to as standard waterfloods and standard imbibition tests. Those in which the brine composition is changed one or more times during the test are referred to as mixed-brine tests. In standard waterfloods, Brine 2 gave 5.5% higher waterflood recovery than Brine 1. Imbibition rate tests showed that Brine 2 gave less water-wet conditions than Brine 1. For mixed-brine waterfloods, Berea Sandstone gave waterflood recoveries of Moutray crude oil ranging from 59–72% of original oil-in-place (OOIP), according to the choice of initial and injected brine compositions and initial water saturation. Changes in brine composition can be favorable to recovery as compared to standard waterfloods. For Moutray/brine/Berea systems, waterflood recoveries were improved significantly if the core was initially equilibrated with Brine 2 and subsequently flooded first with Brine 1 and then with Brine 2. The effects of brine composition are highly specific to the crude oil and aging conditions. Standard waterfloods with Brine 1 and Brine 2 gave a difference of 15% OOIP for an Alaskan crude oil, but with Brine 1 giving the higher recovery and less water-wet conditions than Brine 2.

96/01302 Optimization of the hearth type furnace process for brown coal coke production

The effect of brine composition on oil recovery by waterflooding is under investigation. Wettability states of cores used in this study were achieved by aging with Moutray crude oil. Two brine compositions were tested, 4% NaCl + 0.5% CaCl2 and 2% CaCl2; they are referred to as Brine 1 and Brine 2, respectively. Tests in which the same brine was used throughout are referred to as standard waterfloods and standard imbibition tests. Those in which the brine composition is changed one or more times during the test are referred to as mixed-brine tests.In standard waterfloods, Brine 2 gave 5.5% higher waterflood recovery than Brine 1. Imbibition rate tests showed that Brine 2 gave less water-wet conditions than Brine 1. For mixed-brine waterfloods, Berea Sandstone gave waterflood recoveries of Moutray crude oil ranging from 59–72% of original oil-in-place (OOIP), according to the choice of initial and injected brine compositions and initial water saturation.Changes in brine composition can be favorable to recovery as compared to standard waterfloods. For Moutray/brine/Berea systems, waterflood recoveries were improved significantly if the core was initially equilibrated with Brine 2 and subsequently flooded first with Brine 1 and then with Brine 2. The effects of brine composition are highly specific to the crude oil and aging conditions. Standard waterfloods with Brine 1 and Brine 2 gave a difference of 15% OOIP for an Alaskan crude oil, but with Brine 1 giving the higher recovery and less water-wet conditions than Brine 2.

Local government response to the American Trader oil spill of 1990: Implications for policy

In February 1990, the tanker American Trader ran aground and spilled c. 9500 barrels (bbls) of Alaskan crude oil 2286m (7500 ft) off Huntington Beach, California. Five coastal cities were threatened by the spill, and two were especially active in directing responses to the spill's impacts. In spite of this existing threat, only one city had a prepared, oil-spill contingency plan. Key questions that arose were who was in charge, the role of dispersants and how to clean the beaches. Problems of communications, slick monitoring, volunteers, boat harbors and the media were present. Lessons learned were the need for joint oil-spill planning, clarification of the role of the state, the need for a joint command center, the need to plan for volunteers and the vital role for local governments.

Screening of commercial inocula for efficacy in stimulating oil biodegradation in closed laboratory system

In February, 1990, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency issued a public solicitation for proposals to the bioremediation industry on testing the efficacy of commercial microbial products for enhancing degradation of weathered Alaskan crude oil. The Agency commissioned the National Environmental Technology Applications Corporation (NETAC), a non-profit corporation dedicated to the commercialization of environmental technologies, to convene a panel of experts to review the proposals and choose those that offered the most promise for success in the field. Forty proposals were submitted, and 11 were selected for the first phase of a two-tiered testing protocol (only 10 were tested because one company did not participate). The laboratory testing consisted of electrolytic respirometers set up to measure oxygen uptake over time and shake flasks to measure oil degradation and microbial growth. If one or more products were found effective, the second tier would take place, consisting of small field plots on an actual contaminated beach in Prince William Sound in the summer of 1990. This paper discusses the first respirometric evaluations.

Protocol for Testing Bioremediation Products against Weathered Alaskan Crude Oil

ABSTRACT To screen various commercial microbial products for effectiveness in enhancing biodegradation of weathered Alaskan crude oil, a series of laboratory tests were conducted of 10 different products. The products were tested by electrolytic respirometry, to measure oxygen uptake over time, and in shaker flask microcosms, to measure oil degradation and microbial growth. Results supported the decision to field test two of the products.

Use of the Aurelia Metamorphosis Test System to detect subtle effects of selected hydrocarbons and petroleum oil

The Aurelia Metamorphosis Test System was devised to use simple Aurelia polyps as indicator organisms for the detection of subtle effects of petroleum-related hydrocarbons and of Alaskan crude petroleum oil (ACPO) on developmental processes involved in strobilation initiation, differentiation of ephyrae, and genetic modification expressed through cloning. Compounds tested were ACPO, aniline, anthracene, benzanthracene, benzene, benzo[a]pyrene, biphenyl, cresol, naphthalene, perylene, phenol and pyrene. Gross morphology of the ephyrae (patterning, numbers and appearance of structures), statolith and mematocyst numbers, and pulsing behavior were recorded using the light microscope. Selected ephyrae with teratological malformations were studied with the scanning electron microscope and swimming behavior was observed visually. The variety of subtle developmental, behavioral and genetic effects due to marine hydrocarbons detected using the Aurelia Metamorphosis Test System demonstrated that this test system could be used as an early warning system to detect subtle effects of other marine pollutants.

Analysis of Alaskan crude oils by glass capillary gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

AbstractGlass capillary gas chromatography/mass spectrometry is used to profile Alaskan crude oil for purposes of origin verification. Alaskan oil, sampled at Valdez, Alaska, and transshipped to the U.S. East Coast, is compared with 21 samples of foreign crude oil using GC/MS techniques in which original data is reconstructed at selected parent and fragment ions to generate a series of chromatographic profiles. Comparison of selected profiles and compositional parameters derived from peak ratios allows distinction of Alaskan oil from many foreign crudes and may be applied to the examination of crude mixtures.

A thermogravimetric method for distinguishing Alaskan crude oil from that of other world sources

A method for “fingerprinting” crude petroleum to determine the country of origin by thermogravimetry has been developed. Twenty-nine crude oil samples from various sources, both foreign and domestic, have been examined. Comparison of the thermogravimetric data, both graphically and numerically, yield a set of parameters which are useful in distinguishing between crude oil from the Alaskan Prudhoe Bay field and that of fields in other regions of the world.

Alaskan Transportation: An Overview of Some Aspects of Transporting Alaskan Crude Oil

The first commercial oil well in Alaska was drilled in 1901, but it was in 1968 that Alaska was thrust into prominence as an oil producer with the discovery of the Prudhoe Bay field, the largest oil field ever found in the United States. This paper briefly explores the transportation-related aspects of the design, construction, and operation of the pipeline and support facilities. The pipeline terminates at Port Valdez on Prince William Sound. It is from here that the second leg of the journey to the energy-hungry lower 48 states begins. A thoroughly modern and unique marine transportation system is being utilized to transport approximately 1.2 million barrels (191 000 m3) per day of Alaskan crude oil to West and Gulf Coast refineries. The Valdez Terminal, the pipeline, the North Slope supply, and vessel particulars and operations are discussed; in addition, environmental and legal problems are outlined.

Financing the Alaskan Project: The Experience at Sohio

Until mid-1969, The Standard Oil Company (an Ohio Corporation) hereafter referred to as Sohio was a relatively small marketer and refiner within the petroleum industry. A series of events beginning in that year and culminating in the Summer of 1977 (when Alaskan crude oil was first shipped via the Alaskan pipeline) have transformed Sohio into a leading producer of crude oil. The total assets of the firm have increased from $773 million at year-end 1969 to $7,778 million at the end of 1977 a ten-fold increase. A prerequisite for sustained growth is the availability of capital. Growth of the order of magnitude experienced by Sohio has required large quantities of external capital. This paper briefly

Pipeline Problems Exacerbate West Coast Oil Surplus

A discussion showed that Alaskan sour crude has displaced imported sour crude used by west coast refiners, but not the 600,000 bbl/day of imported sweet crude. In the absence of pipelines, the 550,000 bbl/day excess of Alaskan crude oil must be moved to the Gulf Coast by tankers. Atlantic Richfield Co. already has been forced to abandon its plans to deliver crude to the northern tier states by means of the existing 744 mi long Trans Mountain Pipeline between Puget Sound and Edmonton, Alberta, which ties in with the continental network of pipeline systems. Standard Oil Co. (Ohio)'s proposal to establish a 1027 mi Pactex pipeline from Long Beach, Calif., to Midland, Tex., is still an open question. Four other proposals have been made, including one by the Northern Tier Pipeline Co. which has considerable political support. In this plan, a deepwater terminal for supertankers would be built at Port Angeles. From there, the pipeline would go around Puget Sound's south end, swing north towards Seattle and then proceed 1550 mi to Clearbrook, Minn. The project would have a design capacity of 1.2 million bbl/day.