Ajanta Caves Research Articles

From murals to microclimate: assessing the ecological footprint of tourism at Ajanta Caves

From murals to microclimate: assessing the ecological footprint of tourism at Ajanta Caves

Exploring the digital heritage of Ajanta Caves through VR technology

The Ajanta Caves, a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in Maharashtra, India, are renowned for their exquisite ancient rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments. Dating back to the 2nd century BCE and spanning over a period of several centuries, these architectural marvels exhibit exceptional craftsmanship and artistic mastery. The caves consist of mesmerizing murals, sculptures, and architectural features that depict various scenes from the life of Buddha and other significant figures in Buddhism. These paintings portray an array of vibrant colors and delicate details that have withstood the test of time remarkably well. What makes Ajanta Caves truly remarkable is not only their aesthetic beauty but also the cultural significance they hold. It is crucial to preserve and promote the cultural heritage of these caves for future generations. For this study we have selected Ajanta Cave No. 1. This research aims to investigate how Virtual Reality (VR) technology enhance the digital experience of exploring the Ajanta Caves.

Assessing the carrying capacity for the environmental protection of the ancient artworks of India’s Ajanta caves

Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate environmental factors impacting Ajanta mural deterioration, assessing global tourism effects and visitor conduct on cave environment and murals. This study recognizes stakeholder roles in conservation, providing data-driven insights to guide institutions like the Archaeological Survey of India. The objective is sustainable tourism practices to balance public access with mural preservation for future generations. Design/methodology/approach Over 25 years, Ajanta Caves' visitors doubled, impacting microclimatic conditions for ancient murals. This study assesses visitor impact to establish a regime and determine carrying capacity, considering temperature, humidity and pollution. Challenges arise from quantifying capacity because of variables. This research informs global tourism and heritage conservation, offering methodologies applicable to cultural sites worldwide. Findings This study examines environmental impacts on mural preservation in Ajanta Caves, including humidity, microbial growth, sunlight exposure, air quality and tourist presence. Tourist influx escalates CO2 levels, directly endangering murals. Concerns about particulate matter, especially during visits, emphasize the need for data-driven decision-making and modern technology use to protect Ajanta Caves' artwork, crucial because of its global significance and tourism-related vulnerabilities. Social implications This study carries substantial social implications with a global resonance. The active engagement of the local community and tourism stakeholders in conserving and promoting the Ajanta Caves fosters empowerment, igniting a sense of pride, ownership and responsibility among residents and ensuring sustainable enjoyment of cultural heritage while safeguarding it for future generations. In addition, there will be socioeconomic benefits to local residents such as employment opportunities as tour operators, tour guides, hospitality staff, artisans and souvenir shopkeepers. Originality/value This study integrates art conservation, environmental science, cultural heritage preservation and social aspects to address global tourism challenges. Focusing on a site of worldwide significance, this study offers practical strategies for artwork preservation, tourism management and environmental concerns. These recommendations provide real-world solutions applicable to heritage sites globally, bridging scientific analysis with social and cultural insights.

A Comparative Study on The Localization of The Creation of Dunhuang Cave Temples from The Perspective of Typology and Its Protection Suggestions

As an important variant of Chinese classical religious architecture, compared with the Indian Ajanta Caves as its prototype, the Dunhuang Cave Temple has undergone considerable localization in the independent evolution of the millennium, which is reflected in the embodiment of the central tower and the The shape of the top of the bucket, the gradually decentralised traffic flow and the subject matter of the paintings. This paper attempts to analyze this from the perspective of typology combined with the shape and fresco style of some of the Mogao Grottoes, and further discusses some feasible measures for the protection of relevant cultural relics.

Assessment of Biofilm Inhabitants of Deteriorated Surfaces of Heritage Sites

Heritage monument surfaces are being deteriorated by diverse microbiota. This study used culture-dependent and culture-independent strategies to investigate the bacterial inhabitants colonizing India's two different heritage sites, namely Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus (CSMT) Mumbai and Ajanta Caves (AJC), Aurangabad. The culturable approach showed the presence of common environmental bacteria such as Pseudomonas and Bacillus. However, 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing of the composite samples revealed rich bacterial diversity in the AJC metagenome compared to CSMT, which is comparatively well maintained. The functional profile of metagenomes revealed abundant hits for sulfate reducers (15.4%; 29.8%) and nitrate reducers (36.3%; 25.1%), respectively, in CSMT and AJC. Biofilm-associated genes (alg1 and pelA) were detected in metagenomic DNA and cultivated bacterial genomic DNA to envisage the presence of biofilm formers dwelling on the heritage surfaces. The study suggests the possibility of tracking the biofilm bacteria inhabiting the deteriorated surfaces of heritage sites through an integrated approach that would provide risk assessment toward management and conservation strategies.

Architectural Significance of Granite and Other Durable Rocks in the Context of India – An Analytical Study

Architectures created through the cutting of naturally occurred massive rocks include different structures, buildings, tombs, monuments, caves and sculptures. On account of hard and tough property, the granite is considered as strong construction stone in human history. Granite is very common in the continental crust of our mother earth. It is characterised as coarse grained plutonic intrusive igneous rock and is composed of quartz, alkali feldspar and plagioclase. Typical mineralogical character and textural varieties of granite facilitates to develop a wide range of colours, which include white, pink and grey etc. Granite rocks established itself as praiseworthy architecture stone since historical past because of its distinctive character like durability, appreciable finishing, fascinating polish nature and above all its magnificent colour diversities. As architectural stone, the granitic rocks demand attraction owing to the combination of style and elegance. The application of granitic rocks is witnessed in the ancient world through the mesmerising major architectures in India and around the world like Mount Rushmore, Washington Monument, Great Pyramid of Giza; Ajanta and Ellora caves, monolithic structure in the Zagwe-built Lalibela in Ethiopia along with in most of the long-lived old Indian temples, old forts and monuments etc. The monolithic free-standing architecture is generally rock-cut structures as depicted in the Ellora Kailasanathar Temple. The biggest monolithic statue in world, the Gommateshwara statue of Bahubali at Shravanabelagola present in the Indian state at Karnataka was carved in the 983 CE from a single block of granite rock. The radioactivity stuff in the granite is an important concern to the people in recent world. Even though the impact of radioactivity is proved mostly very less harmful to mankind, current research indicates that few granite products are showing radioactive substance index beyond permissible limit of the specified standard, which is responsible for environmental pollution during the use for long. Therefore, due attention is required towards the pertinent issue of radioactivity in the granite stones. Apart from granite, many of the architectures in India are created by the other rock types that include rocks like sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks.

THE MAGICAL TECHNIQUE OF CHAMBA RUMAL

India is known for its textiles and embroidery all over the world. Indications of cotton fabrics have been found at the site of the Mohen-jo-Daro excavations and the finest muslins and silks are seen represented in the murals of the Ajanta and Bagh caves. The art of embroidery has been practiced since the remote ages in India. At the excavations made at Mohen-jo-Daro, bronze needles have been found which were most probably used for purposes of embroidery. Ancient literature and sculptures also prove the antiquity of the art of embroidery in India.

AEGLE MARMELOS (BAEL PATRA): AN AYURVEDIC PLANT WITH ETHNOMEDICINAL VALUE

Aegle marmelos is considered as the most sacred or holy plant which is grown by the sides of Hindu temples. This plant is dedicated to Lord Shiva and is also believed that Lord Shiva resides under the Bael tree. Besides this, the plant is associated with a great medicinal value whose medicinal description is also mentioned in the ancient treatise like Vedas, Puranas, Charaka Samhita and Brihat Samhita and has also been portrayed in the paintings of Ajanta caves. Every part of the Bael plant is used to treat various diseases. In Ayurveda, the plant is used in Panchang form to treat diarrhea, dysentery and ulcer. In folklore, the plant parts are used to treat diabetes, skin diseases and typhoid, wound healing, ulcer, stomachache, jaundice, high BP, malaria, cancer and other diseases. The fruit of the plant is edible and carries great medicinal value because of the presence of vitamins, minerals and various antioxidants. The pulp of the fruit is aromatic, sweet, pale orange and resinous. The unripe fruit pulp of the plant is used to prepare murabba, pudding and juice. The plant is associated with ethnomedicinal uses and possesses various therapeutic and pharmacological properties including antioxidant, anti-diabetic, antihistamine, radio protective, antiulcer, anticancer, cardio-protective, antidiarrheal, antibacterial, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory and antiviral. In this review article, attempts have been made to summarize the phytochemistry, ethnomedicinal, Ayurvedic and pharmacological view of the Bael plant.

TO MEASURE SATISFACTION OF TOURISTS VISITING THE WORLD HERITAGE SITE OF AJANTA CAVES

To create effective marketing strategies for Heritage Destination in the tourism industry, an in depth knowledge of tourists is crucial. The aim of this study is to measure tourist satisfaction of the highly trafficked destination of the World Heritage Site of Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad (Maharashtra, India). Primary data was collected from 100 tourists (foreign & domestic tourists) visited Ajanta caves in the month of January 2020 using questionnaire. Data Analysis was done by using independent sample t-test and descriptive statistics. The findings of the study suggested that tourists were strongly satisfied with the appealing monument, facilities at the monument, scenic beauty of Ajanta caves and conservation of the monument. On the contrary tourists were let down with the accessibility & connectivity. It was also observed that there is no significant difference between satisfaction of foreign tourists and domestic tourists. Further researcher has come up with the suggestions for the destination planners and promoters to improve tourists footfall at the destination.

Deterioration of World Heritage Cave Monument of Ajanta, India: Insights to Important Biological Agents and Environment Friendly Solutions

Heritage monuments across the world are affected by a variety of physical and biological stresses. Damage to heritage monuments due to insects and pests is growing with increasing anthropogenic pressure and changing climatic conditions. Cave monuments are habitats to microbes, algae, fungi, and insects, and are unique biodiversity sites due to their low temperature, little to no sunlight, and high moisture conditions. This study takes stock of available information on important factors that facilitate the growth of insect pests and degrade heritage monuments. Ajanta Caves, a UNESCO world heritage site in India, is a human marvel, important archaeological and heritage site of immense cultural and historic values. The present paper is an attempt to understand a variety of stresses and factors with a focus on insect pests that have substantially affected Ajanta cave paintings in the last few decades. The study also provides information on available approaches for damage control including the need for an integrated insect pest management for protecting cave monuments against rapid degradation across the country in general and Ajanta caves in particular. A light-based approach is the key highlight of the study that can be used as an effective and efficient approach to protect archaeological sites especially cave paintings from insect pests without disturbing the pollinator diversity and surrounding environment.

Beauty and the (Huge) Beast Await You at N.Y. Museums

Beauty and the (Huge) Beast Await You at N.Y. Museums

AJANTA CAVES: A PERSPECTIVE ON CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

Ajanta Caves, UNESCO World Heritage Centre in India had its historic glory dating back to 2 nd Century BC to 6 th Century AD has become an outstanding exemplary for Ancient Rock Cut Architecture in India. The series of Buddhist caves comprising Chaityas (Commemorative Prayer Halls) and Viharas (Private Prayer Halls with resting cells) onto the horse shoe cliff away from the chaos, amidst nature must have assured the serenity in environment and tranquility for the inhabitants then. Ajanta, exhibits its efficiency in terms of various construction methods and techniques adopted for manifestation by the then artisan, as well as richness in terms of awe inspiring ornamentation both in paintings and reliefs where in majority of the interpretations in accordance to Gandhara Art. This paper focuses mainly on discussing various construction techniques and methods adopted for extrusion of form, purpose of various spatial fragments within vicinity and reflectance of various functional attributes of potential building elements that reinforced sustainability of the vicinity both structurally and aesthetically with the support of visual analysis. Also, other essential strategies such as ornamentation throwing light on Buddhist theology and water management to ascertain the comfort factor for the then inhabitants. This paper concludes with the appraisal of the rock cut mechanisms, design strategies and approaches while promoting a scope for further research in bringing out the practical applications as well issues regarding ambient indoor lighting and ventilation. Also with an anticipation of exploring the then safety concerns along with management strategies for serene and isolated living. Ajanta with its physical setting and articulation of various functional spaces as a sustainable habitat for centuries together does have heritage footprint with an exuberant research quotient.

Chasing the Antelopes: A Personal Reflection

This article is a personal reflection based on the author's experience of visiting the Ajanta Caves in India and what they mean to the author -- as documents, as evidence, and as social and cultural heritage.

Characterization of failure modes and planned stabilization measures for the Ajanta caves in India

The Ajanta caves are classified as a UNESCO World-heritage monument, where ancient Buddhist rock-cut caves from the Second Century BC to 6th Century AD are found. The caves were carved manually in Basaltic rock mass in the Deccan trap basaltic flow of the Ajanta Formation of the Sahyadri Group in the Upper Cretaceous age. In the Ajanta caves, the hillside slopes are predominantly covered by surface boulders. Boulder dislocations caused by long-term rock mass deterioration, distressing, water percolation and weathering for a strike length of 600m, and a height of 75m; are a major concern when considering the safety of both visitors and site personnel, as well as with regard to the preservation of the historic UNESCO World Heritage site. This study was carried out to assess and characterize the formation of boulders with possible stabilization measures to be planned of a boulder field and slope surface is described and discussed herewith. The possible geological mode of development of the boulder field, rock mass characterization of slope, boulder stabilization philosophy is presented herewith along with planned various stabilization measures considering the esthetic value of the World Heritage site at Ajanta.

Geological dimension of the cultural heritage: A case example of the Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra, India)

International development for the both geoconservation and geotourism requires attention to all kinds of (potential) geological heritage. The Ajanta Caves (western Maharashtra, India) is a famous cultural object consisting of 30 caves carved in the Deccan Traps and inscribed to the UNESCO list of the World Heritage Sites. Its examination permits to indicate four geological features, which are the artificial caves themselves (these mark geological activity of the man in the historical past), the end-Cretaceous floot basalts (these demonstrate the emplacement of Large Igneous Province and the relevant palaeoenvironmental catastrophe), the gorge of the Waghora River (this is peculiar landform resulted from the river erosion of hard rocks), and the rockfall hazard (this is an interesting engineering geological phenomenon linked to the caves construction/maintenance). Geological heritage value of these features is argued. Unfortunately, there is not any geotourism activity at the Ajanta Caves presently. The content analysis of the principal on-line resources (web pages) devoted to this cultural site reveals the absence of sufficient geological information that would facilitate geotourism. Generally, judgements about the Ajanta Caves and the other similar sites in the geological dimension permit to consider the wide spectrum of the geological heritage. They also highlight some extra opportunities for geotourism, which can benefit by its development at cultural sites with thousands of visitors.

Characterization of 4th–5th century A.D. earthen plaster support layers of Ajanta mural paintings

Characterization of decorated earthen plaster has seldom been attempted in India. This paper provides a description of a recent characterization of mud plasters of decorated rock art in India’s Ajanta caves by visual as well as instrumental techniques using polarizing microscope; laser scattering devise; sieve analysis; XRF, XRD, CHN, FTIR and SEM techniques on a few micro grams of plaster sample. The properties of high silt, (>75%) low clay (about 15%) plaster support layers seems to have been modified by deliberate addition of lime to enhance cementing characteristics. SEM and FTIR spectra of the plaster show inclusion of coarse black ferruginous silicate along with rarer glauconite–celadonite and zeolites probably bound together with proteic materials that have now transformed to calcium oxalate. XRD and SEM studies indicate that quartz and sepiolite have been added to enhance the performance of the plaster. The shrinkage property of the soil has also been modified by the addition of vegetal matter.

Scientific studies on decorated mud mortar of Ajanta

This study is an attempt to reveal the decorated earthen plaster of Ajanta. The mud plaster of Ajanta caves has been analyzed with the help of physical and analytical tools. The results indicate that high silt (>70%) low clay soil may have been mixed purposefully with lime (calcite) for the reason to enhance the cementing characteristics. The presence of calcium oxalate was detected from FTIR spectra may have been the resultant product of proteic materials presented in mud plaster. Ferrugineous silicate along with rarer gluconite–celendonite and white zeolites were also perceived from SEM and FTIR spectral analysis. The existence of quartz and sepiolite in mud mortar was also detected from XRD and SEM studies. The vegetal matter might have been added to tailor the construction behavior. The analytical results authenticate the similarity of earthen plaster of Ajanta and alluvion deposits of Waghura River just in front of caves, probably used as raw material in improvement of new material that suits for restoration for optimize performance and compatibility with the existing materials.

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) study to detect seepage pathways in the Ajanta Caves in India

The present study used the ground penetrating radar (GPR) tool to decipher the presence of fractures which may be possible pathways for seepage into the Ajanta Caves in India. GPR data were collected by 40- and 200-MHz antennas from Geophysical Survey Systems, Inc. (GSSI). The data were edited and processed using the RADAN 6.5 software. The processed data indicate the presence of fractures of varying orientation in the basaltic formations. The study shows high reflection zones indicative of fractures as well as strong absorbance zones which may be a homogeneous zone without any fractures.

Rockfall hazard assessment at Ajanta Cave, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India

The Ajanta caves are situated in Deccan Trap basalt and declared as one of the World Heritage Sites by UNESCO. The present study aims to investigate and understand the damage of caves and to protect the life of the visitors from the rockfall phenomenon at and around the caves. Information related to the detached rock mass/block was acquired by using Barton–Bandis model in Universal Distinct Element Code. Parameters for rockfall simulation were determined by rigorous field study and laboratory experiment and then calibrated some of the parameters by back analysis. RocFall 4.0 program has been used to calculate maximum bounce heights, total kinetic energies, and translational velocities of the falling blocks of different weights. The maximum bounce height varies from 14.0 to 19.0 m for the weight of the block size ranging from 500 to 2,000 kg, whereas the maximum velocity and maximum kinetic energy are 30.0 m/s and 917.66 kJ, respectively. Finally, the results of simulation have been used to find out the position of the barrier and its capacity to design the protection barrier. The barrier capacity was found to be 325 kJ for 2,000 kg of falling blocks at a height of 50.0 m.

Mural Rights: Establishing Standing for Communities Under American Moral Rights Laws

The origins of mural art have been traced back more than 30,000 years, evidenced by prehistoric images of animals found painted on the walls of the Chauvet Cave in Southern France.1 Throughout history, murals have been employed by man to tell stories and to convey artistic expression. The Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra, India, date back to the third century B.C. and contain intricate mural art depicting the Jataka stories.2 The San Bartolo murals in Guatemala were created in the first century B.C. and represent an important part of Mayan history.3 The significance of mural art still exists in society today and remains an effective way of communicating expression to a large, public audience. Public murals create accessible artistic expression for the enjoyment of all classes of people, help to define urban neighborhoods and offer aesthetic relief from blight and abandonment.