Air-sea Turbulent Heat Fluxes Research Articles

A Bowen ratio-informed method for coordinating the estimates of air-sea turbulent heat fluxes

Abstract Accurate quantification of turbulent heat fluxes [THF, comprising sensible heat flux (SHF) and latent heat flux (LHF)] and Bowen ratio (β, ratio of SHF and LHF) is essential for understanding the air-sea interaction. However, the biased estimates of SHF and LHF by widely applied bulk aerodynamic models, and the separate estimates of SHF and LHF by data-driven models, both may result in unrealistic β estimates. This study for the first time innovatively proposes a Bowen ratio-informed data-driven model (BrTHF) for coordinating the estimations of THF and β using the multivariate random forest technique and a combination of eddy covariance flux observations and meteorological and oceanic observations collected from 53 historical cruises. The result shows that the BrTHF model could not only achieve high-accuracy SHF and LHF estimates, but also avoid the outliers of β estimates that were commonly found in un-synergistic random forest and well-known COARE3.5 models.

Observed Subdaily Variations in Air–Sea Turbulent Heat Fluxes under Different Marine Atmospheric Boundary Layer Stability Conditions in the Gulf Stream

Abstract Based on data collected from 14 buoys in the Gulf Stream, this study examines how hourly air–sea turbulent heat fluxes vary on subdaily time scales under different boundary layer stability conditions. The annual mean magnitudes of the subdaily variations in latent and sensible heat fluxes at all stations are 40 and 15 W m−2, respectively. Under near-neutral conditions, hourly fluctuations in air–sea humidity and temperature differences are the major drivers of subdaily variations in latent and sensible heat fluxes, respectively. When the boundary layer is stable, on the other hand, wind anomalies play a dominant role in shaping the subdaily variations in latent and sensible heat fluxes. In the context of a convectively unstable boundary layer, wind anomalies exert a strong controlling influence on subdaily variations in latent heat fluxes, whereas subdaily variations in sensible heat fluxes are equally determined by air–sea temperature difference and wind anomalies. The relative contributions by all physical quantities that affect subdaily variations in turbulent heat fluxes are further documented. For near-neutral and unstable boundary layers, the subdaily contributions are O(2) and O(1) W m−2 for latent and sensible heat fluxes, respectively, and they are less than O(1) W m−2 for turbulent heat fluxes under stable conditions. Significance Statement High-resolution buoy observations of air–sea variables in the Gulf Stream provide the opportunity to investigate the physical factors that determine subdaily variations in air–sea turbulent heat fluxes. This study addresses two key points. First, the observed subdaily amplitudes of heat fluxes are related to various processes, including wind fields and air–sea thermal effect differences. Second, the global sea surface heat budget is known to not be in near-zero balance and it ranges from several to tens of watts per square meter. Therefore, consideration of the relatively strong influence of subdaily variability in air–sea turbulent heat fluxes could provide a new strategy for solving the global heat budget balance problem.

Observed Air–Sea Turbulent Heat Flux Anomalies during the Onset of the South China Sea Summer Monsoon in 2021

Abstract This study presents observational findings of air–sea turbulent heat flux anomalies during the onset of the South China Sea summer monsoon (SCSSM) in 2021 and explains the mechanism for high-resolution heat flux variations. Turbulent heat flux discrepancies are not uniform throughout the basin but indicate a significant regional disparity in the South China Sea (SCS), which also experiences evident year-to-year variability. Based on buoy- and cruise-based air–sea measurements, high-temporal-resolution (less than hourly) anomalies in the latent heat flux during the SCSSM burst are unexpectedly determined by sea–air humidity differences instead of wind effects under near-neutral and mixed marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) stability conditions. However, latent heat anomalies are mainly induced by wind speed under changing MABL conditions. The sensible heat flux is much weaker, with its anomalies dominated by sea–air temperature differences regardless of the boundary layer condition. The observational results are used to examine the discrepancies in turbulent heat fluxes and associated air–sea variables in reanalysis products. The comparisons indicate that latent and sensible heat fluxes in the reanalysis are overestimated by approximately 55 and 3 W m−2, respectively. These overestimations are mainly induced by higher estimates of sea–air humidity/temperature differences. The relative humidity is underestimated by approximately 4.2% in the two high-resolution reanalysis products. The higher SST (near-surface specific humidity) and lower air temperature (specific air humidity) eventually lead to higher estimates of sea–air humidity/temperature differences (1.75 g kg−1/0.25°C), which are the dominant factors controlling the variations in the air–sea turbulent heat fluxes. Significance Statement Air–sea interactions are significant in predicting the onset of East Asian monsoon systems, including the SCSSM. During the SCSSM in 2021, four buoys and cruise observations are used to investigate anomalies in the latent and sensible heat fluxes. The physical mechanism of the variations in turbulent heat fluxes under different MABL stability conditions is explored in this study. The humidity and wind speed anomalies play roles under mixed boundary conditions in determining the high-resolution variations in latent heat fluxes. Based on these observational results, the heat fluxes and associated air–sea variables from reanalysis products are compared to identify the differences in the operational systems. These comparison results can help improve the reanalysis to obtain better monsoon predictions.

Effects of Periodic Tidal Elevations on the Air-Sea Momentum and Turbulent Heat Fluxes in the East China Sea

Using bulk formulas, two-year platform (fastened to the seabed) hourly observations from 2016 to 2017 in the East China Sea (121.6° E, 32.4° N) are used to investigate the role of the tide-induced surface elevation in changing the fixed observational height and modifying the momentum and air-sea turbulent heat fluxes. The semidiurnal tide-dominated elevation anomalies ranging from −3.6 to 3.9 m change the fixed platform observational height. This change causes hourly differences in the wind stress and latent and sensible heat fluxes between estimates with and without considering surface elevation, with values ranging from −1.5 × 10−3 Nm−2, −10.2 Wm−2, and −3.6 Wm−2 to 2.2 × 10−3 Nm−2, 8.4 Wm−2, and 4.6 Wm−2, respectively. More significant differences occur during spring tides. The differences show weak dependence on the temperature, indicating weak seasonal variations. The mean (maximum) difference percentage relative to the mean magnitude is approximately 3.5% (7%), 1.5% (3%), and 1.5% (3%) for the wind stress and latent and sensible heat fluxes, respectively. The boundary layer stability (BLS) can convert from near-neutral conditions to stable and unstable states in response to tide-induced changes in the observational height, with a probability of occurrence of 2%. Wind anomalies play dominant roles in determining the hourly anomalies of the latent heat flux, regardless of the state of the BLS. Extreme cases, including the cold air outbreak in 2016, tropical cyclones Meranti in 2016, and Ampil in 2018, are also examined. This study will facilitate future observation-reanalysis comparisons in the studied coastal region where ocean–atmosphere-land interactive processes are significant.

Observed Extreme Air–Sea Heat Flux Variations during Three Tropical Cyclones in the Tropical Southeastern Indian Ocean

AbstractSix-month buoy-based heat flux observations from the poorly sampled tropical southeastern Indian Ocean are examined to document the extremes during three tropical cyclones (TCs) from December 2018 to May 2019. The most striking feature at the mooring site (16.9°S, 115.2°E) during the TCs is the extensively suppressed diurnal cycle of the net surface flux (Qnet), with a mean daytime (nighttime) reduction of 470 (131) W m−2, a peak decrease at approximately noon of 695 W m−2 and an extreme drop during TC Riley of 800 W m−2. The mean surface cooling in the daytime is primarily contributed by the 370 W m−2 decrease in shortwave radiation associated with the increased cloudiness. The air–sea turbulent heat fluxes increase by approximately 151 W m−2 in response to the enhanced wind speed under near-neutral boundary conditions. The daily mean rainfall-induced cooling is 8 W m−2, with a maximum magnitude of 90 W m−2. The mean values, seasonal variation, and synoptic variability of the characteristic heat fluxes are used to assess the new reanalysis data from ERA5 and MERRA2 and the analyzed OAFlux. The overall performance of the high-frequency net heat flux estimates at the synoptic scale is satisfactory, but the four flux components exhibit different quality levels. A serious error is that ERA5 and MERRA2 poorly represent TCs, and they show significant daily mean Qnet biases with opposite directions, −59 W m−2 (largely due to the overestimated latent heat with a bias of −76 W m−2) and 50 W m−2 (largely due to the overestimated shortwave radiation with a bias of 41 W m−2), respectively.

The Importance of Including Sea Surface Current when Estimating Air–Sea Turbulent Heat Fluxes and Wind Stress in the Gulf Stream Region

AbstractUsing buoy observations from 2004 to 2010 and newly released atmospheric reanalysis and satellite altimetry-derived geostrophic currents from 1993 to 2017, the quantitative contribution of daily mean surface currents to air–sea turbulent heat flux and wind stress uncertainties in the Gulf Stream (GS) region is investigated based on bulk formulas. At four buoy stations, the daily mean latent (sensible) heat flux difference between the estimates with and without surface currents range from −18 (−4) to 20 (4) W m−2, while the daily mean wind stress difference ranges from −0.04 to 0.02 N m−2. The positive values indicate higher estimates with opposite directions between surface currents and absolute winds. The transition between positive and negative differences is significantly associated with synoptic-scale weather variations. The uncertainties based on buoy observations are approximately 7% and 3% for wind stress and turbulent heat fluxes, respectively. The new reanalysis and satellite geostrophic currents confirm the uncertainties identified by buoy observations with acceptable discrepancies and provide a spatial view of the uncertainty fields. The mean geostrophic currents are aligned with the surface wind along the GS; therefore, the turbulent heat fluxes and wind stress will be “underestimated” with surface currents included. However, on both sides of the GS, the surface flow can be upwind due to possible mechanisms of eddy–mean flow interactions and recirculations, resulting in higher turbulent heat flux estimations. The wind stress and turbulent heat flux uncertainties experience significant seasonal variations and show long-term trends.

The Importance of Relative Wind Speed in Estimating Air–Sea Turbulent Heat Fluxes in Bulk Formulas: Examples in the Bohai Sea

AbstractSea surface currents are commonly neglected when estimating the air–sea turbulent heat fluxes in bulk formulas. Using buoy observations in the Bohai Sea, this paper investigated the effects of near-coast multiscale currents on the quantification of turbulent heat fluxes, namely, latent heat flux (LH) and sensible heat flux (SH). The maximum current reached 1 m s−1 in magnitude, and a steady northeastward current of 0.16 m s−1 appeared in the southern Bohai Strait. The predominant tidal signal was the semidiurnal current, followed by diurnal components. The mean absolute surface wind was from the northeast with a speed of approximately 3 m s−1. The surface winds at a height of 11 m were dominated by the East Asian monsoon. As a result of upwind flow, the monthly mean differences in LH and SH between the estimates with and without surface currents ranged from 1 to 2 W m−2 in July (stable boundary layer) and November (unstable boundary layer). The hourly differences were on average 10 W m−2 and ranged from 0 to 24 W m−2 due to changes in the relative wind speed by high-frequency rotating surface tidal currents. The diurnal variability in LH/SH was demonstrated under stable and unstable boundary conditions. Observations provided an accurate benchmark for flux comparisons. The newly updated atmospheric reanalysis products MERRA-2 and ERA5 were superior to the 1° OAFlux data at this buoy location. However, future efforts in heat flux computation are still needed to, for example, consider surface currents and resolve diurnal variations.

Air–Sea Turbulent Heat Fluxes in Climate Models and Observational Analyses: What Drives Their Variability?

Abstract A traditional view is that the ocean outside of the tropics responds passively to atmosphere forcing, which implies that air–sea heat fluxes are mainly driven by atmosphere variability. This paper tests this viewpoint using state-of-the-art air–sea turbulent heat flux observational analyses and a climate model run at different resolutions. It is found that in midlatitude ocean frontal zones the variability of air–sea heat fluxes is not predominantly driven by the atmosphere variations but instead is forced by sea surface temperature (SST) variations arising from intrinsic oceanic variability. Meanwhile in most of the tropics and subtropics wind is the dominant driver of heat flux variability, and atmosphere humidity is mainly important in higher latitudes. The predominance of ocean forcing of heat fluxes found in frontal regions occurs on scales of around 700 km or less. Spatially smoothing the data to larger scales results in the traditional atmosphere-driving case, while filtering to retain only small scales of 5° or less leads to ocean forcing of heat fluxes over most of the globe. All observational analyses examined (1° OAFlux; 0.25° J-OFURO3; 0.25° SeaFlux) show this general behavior. A standard resolution (1°) climate model fails to reproduce the midlatitude, small-scale ocean forcing of heat flux: refining the ocean grid to resolve eddies (0.1°) gives a more realistic representation of ocean forcing but the variability of both SST and of heat flux is too high compared to observational analyses.

Control of Mode and Intermediate Water Mass Properties in Drake Passage by the Amundsen Sea Low

Abstract The evolution of the physical properties of Subantarctic Mode Water (SAMW) and Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) in the Drake Passage region is examined on time scales down to intraseasonal, within the 1969–2009 period. Both SAMW and AAIW experience substantial interannual to interdecadal variability, significantly linked to the action of the Amundsen Sea low (ASL) in their formation areas. Observations suggest that the interdecadal freshening tendency evident in SAMW over the past three decades has recently abated, while AAIW has warmed significantly since the early 2000s. The two water masses have also experienced a substantial lightening since the start of the record. Examination of the mechanisms underpinning water mass property variability shows that SAMW characteristics are controlled predominantly by a combination of air–sea turbulent heat fluxes, cross-frontal Ekman transport of Antarctic surface waters, and the evaporation–precipitation balance in the Subantarctic zone of the southeast Pacific and Drake Passage, while AAIW properties reflect air–sea turbulent heat fluxes and sea ice formation in the Bellingshausen Sea. The recent interdecadal evolution of the ASL is consistent with both the dominance of the processes described here and the response of SAMW and AAIW on that time scale.

Probability Distribution Characteristics for Surface Air–Sea Turbulent Heat Fluxes over the Global Ocean

Abstract To analyze the probability density distributions of surface turbulent heat fluxes, the authors apply the two-parametric modified Fisher–Tippett (MFT) distribution to the sensible and latent turbulent heat fluxes recomputed from 6-hourly NCEP–NCAR reanalysis state variables for the period from 1948 to 2008. They derived the mean climatology and seasonal cycle of the location and scale parameters of the MFT distribution. Analysis of the parameters of probability distributions identified the areas where similar surface turbulent fluxes are determined by the very different shape of probability density functions. Estimated extreme turbulent heat fluxes amount to 1500–2000 W m−2 (for the 99th percentile) and can exceed 2000 W m−2 for higher percentiles in the subpolar latitudes and western boundary current regions. Analysis of linear trends and interannual variability in the mean and extreme fluxes shows that the strongest trends in extreme fluxes (more than 15 W m−2 decade−1) in the western boundary current regions are associated with the changes in the shape of distribution. In many regions changes in extreme fluxes may be different from those for the mean fluxes at interannual and decadal time scales. The correlation between interannual variability of the mean and extreme fluxes is relatively low in the tropics, the Southern Ocean, and the Kuroshio Extension region. Analysis of probability distributions in turbulent fluxes has also been used in assessing the impact of sampling errors in the Voluntary Observing Ship (VOS)-based surface flux climatologies, allowed for the estimation of the impact of sampling in extreme fluxes. Although sampling does not have a visible systematic effect on mean fluxes, sampling uncertainties result in the underestimation of extreme flux values exceeding 100 W m−2 in poorly sampled regions.

Locally enhanced wintertime air-sea interaction and deep oceanic mixed layer formation associated with the subarctic front in the North Pacific

[1] Satellite-derived high-resolution air-sea flux data and Argo float data were analyzed to reveal the fine-scale spatial structures of air-sea turbulent heat and momentum fluxes and their relationship with the deep oceanic mixed layer around the subarctic front (SAF) in the North Pacific. An important feature inferred from the satellite-derived dataset is the presence of a pair of positive and negative air-sea flux anomaly bands with a width of 100–200 km on both sides of the SAF. Such a fine-scale structure in air-sea fluxes has not been captured in previous datasets. The SAF plays a significant role in determining the fine-scale structure of air-sea fluxes. The oceanic mixed layer is deeper to the south of the SAF, and the maximum mixed layer depth is observed near the positive anomaly band in air-sea fluxes. This study concludes that active air-sea interactions due to the presence of the SAF enhances upward air-sea heat and momentum fluxes to the south of SAF and selectively produces a deep oceanic mixed layer where the formation of Transition Region Mode Water occurs.

Differences between two estimates of air-sea turbulent heat fluxes over the Atlantic Ocean

Uncertainties in turbulent ocean-atmosphere heat flux estimates, both among the estimates and between them and ground truth, suggest that further comparisons are needed. We analyze estimates from the French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea (IFREMER) and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution's Objectively Analyzed air-sea Fluxes (WHOI OAFlux). The IFREMER products are based on satellite observations and the WHOI OAFlux ones on data from satellites, buoys, and ships assimilated into numerical analyses. We focus on the Atlantic sector (70 degrees W-30 degrees E, 45 degrees S-45 degrees N) during 1996-2005, where the variables that enter the bulk formulae for computing fluxes (wind speed, sea surface and air temperature, and specific humidity) can be evaluated against buoys in the Prediction and Research Moored Array in the Atlantic (PIRATA). Since WHOI assimilates PIRATA observations, we have added two independent buoy data sets: FETCH and ROMEO. To examine how each variable contributes to the difference between estimated and buoy fluxes, the method of Bourras (2006) is applied. His so-called Q terms showed that specific air humidity and air temperature contributed the most to the biases of IFREMER latent and sensible heat fluxes, respectively, at both independent buoys. For WHOI OAFlux products, deviations from FETCH values were mainly due to wind speed and sea surface temperature differences, while in comparison with ROMEO fluxes, WHOI OAFlux biases were primarily due to specific humidity and sea surface temperature estimates. Modified estimates of turbulent fluxes with the IFREMER approach using the 10 m specific humidity and air temperature products of Jackson et al. (2009) show significant improvement in three test cases at PIRATA buoys.

Characteristics of low-frequency oscillation intensity of air-sea turbulent heat fluxes over the northwest Pacific

Based on the daily turbulent heat fluxes and related meteorological variables datasets (1985–2006) from Objectively Analyzed air-sea Fluxes (OAFlux) Project of Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI), characteristics of low-frequency oscillation intensity of air-sea turbulent heat fluxes over the northwest Pacific are analyzed by linear perturbation method and correlation analysis. It can be concluded that: 1) the distribution of low-frequency oscillation intensity of latent heat flux (LHF) over the northwest Pacific is mainly affected by that of low-frequency oscillation intensity of anomalous air-sea humidity gradient (Δq′) as well as mean air-sea humidity gradient (\( \overline {\Delta q} \)), while the distribution of low-frequency oscillation intensity of sensible heat flux (SHF) is mainly affected by that of low-frequency oscillation intensity of anomalous air-sea temperature gradient (ΔT′). 2) The low-frequency oscillation of turbulent heat fluxes over the northwest Pacific is the strongest in winter and the weakest in summer. And the seasonal transition of low-frequency oscillation intensity of LHF is jointly influenced by those of low-frequency oscillation intensity of Δq′, low-frequency oscillation intensity of anomalous wind speed (U′), \( \overline {\Delta q} \) and mean wind speed (Ū), while the seasonal transition of low-frequency oscillation intensity of SHF is mainly influenced by those of low-frequency oscillation intensity of ΔT′ and Ū. 3) Over the tropical west Pacific and sea areas north of 20°N, the low-frequency oscillation of LHF (SHF) is mainly influenced by atmospheric variables qa′ (Ta′) and U′, indicating an oceanic response to overlying atmospheric forcing. In contrast, over the tropical eastern and central Pacific south of 20°N, qs′ (Ts′) also greatly influences the low-frequency oscillation of LHF (SHF).

Variability of Subantarctic Mode Water and Antarctic Intermediate Water in the Drake Passage during the Late-Twentieth and Early-Twenty-First Centuries

Abstract A time series of the physical and biogeochemical properties of Subantarctic Mode Water (SAMW) and Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) in the Drake Passage between 1969 and 2005 is constructed using 24 transects of measurements across the passage. Both water masses have experienced substantial variability on interannual to interdecadal time scales. SAMW is formed by winter overturning on the equatorward flank of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) in and to the west of the Drake Passage. Its interannual variability is primarily driven by variations in wintertime air–sea turbulent heat fluxes and net evaporation modulated by the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Despite their spatial proximity, the AAIW in the Drake Passage has a very different source than that of the SAMW because it is ventilated by the northward subduction of Winter Water originating in the Bellingshausen Sea. Changes in AAIW are mainly forced by variability in Winter Water properties resulting from fluctuations in wintertime air–sea turbulent heat fluxes and spring sea ice melting, both of which are linked to predominantly ENSO-driven variations in the intensity of meridional winds to the west of the Antarctic Peninsula. A prominent exception to the prevalent modes of SAMW and AAIW formation occurred in 1998, when strong wind forcing associated with constructive interference between ENSO and the southern annular mode (SAM) triggered a transitory shift to an Ekman-dominated mode of SAMW ventilation and a 1–2-yr shutdown of AAIW production. The interdecadal evolutions of SAMW and AAIW in the Drake Passage are distinct and driven by different processes. SAMW warmed (by ∼0.3°C) and salinified (by ∼0.04) during the 1970s and experienced the reverse trends between 1990 and 2005, when the coldest and freshest SAMW on record was observed. In contrast, AAIW underwent a net freshening (by ∼0.05) between the 1970s and the twenty-first century. Although the reversing changes in SAMW were chiefly forced by a ∼30-yr oscillation in regional air–sea turbulent heat fluxes and precipitation associated with the interdecadal Pacific oscillation, with a SAM-driven intensification of the Ekman supply of Antarctic surface waters from the south contributing significantly too, the freshening of AAIW was linked to the extreme climate change that occurred to the west of the Antarctic Peninsula in recent decades. There, a freshening of the Winter Water ventilating AAIW was brought about by increased precipitation and a retreat of the winter sea ice edge, which were seemingly forced by an interdecadal trend in the SAM and regional positive feedbacks in the air–sea ice coupled climate system. All in all, these findings highlight the role of the major modes of Southern Hemisphere climate variability in driving the evolution of SAMW and AAIW in the Drake Passage region and the wider South Atlantic and suggest that these modes may have contributed significantly to the hemispheric-scale changes undergone by those waters in recent decades.

An improved algorithm of simulation on air-sea turbulent heat fluxes in China seas

With a global GSSTF2 and NCEP/NCAR reanalysis database and observation data at the Yong Xing station of Xisha Island in the South China Sea, we simulated the turbulent sensible and latent heat flux at sea surface in Chinese and neighboring seas (hereafter termed as China seas) using a common bulk method with some improved parameters. Comparing the simulated results with the observed and reanalyzed data, the improvement yielded higher accuracy, a smaller mean square deviation within 10 W/m2, and a smaller average relative error at about 25%. In addition, spatial resolution was improved to 0.1°×0.1°. The simulation is able to replay the main features of regional and seasonal variation in turbulent heat fluxes, and also the general pattern of heat flux changes during the summer monsoon outbreak in the South China Sea.

The seasonal cycle of diabatic heat storage in the Pacific Ocean

This study quantifies uncertainties in closing the seasonal cycle of diabatic heat storage (DHS) over the Pacific Ocean from 20°S to 60°N through the synthesis of World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) reanalysis products from 1993 to 1999. These products are DHS from Scripps Institution of Oceanography (SIO); near-surface geostrophic and Ekman currents from Earth and Space Research (ESR); and air–sea heat fluxes from Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set (COADS), National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), and European Center for Mid-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF). With these products, we compute residual heat budget components by differencing long-term monthly means from the long-term annual mean. This allows the seasonal cycle of the DHS tendency to be modeled. Everywhere latent heat flux residuals dominate sensible heat flux residuals, shortwave heat flux residuals dominate longwave heat flux residuals, and residual Ekman heat advection dominates residual geostrophic heat advection, with residual dissipation significant only in the Kuroshio–Oyashio current extension. The root-mean-square (RMS) of the differences between observed and model residual DHS tendencies (averaged over 10° latitude-by-20° longitude boxes) is <20 W m −2 in the interior ocean and <100 W m −2 in the Kuroshio–Oyashio current extension. This reveals that the residual DHS tendency is driven everywhere by some mix of residual latent heat flux, shortwave heat flux, and Ekman heat advection. Suppressing bias errors in residual air–sea turbulent heat fluxes and Ekman heat advection through minimization of the RMS differences reduces the latter to <10 W m −2 over the interior ocean and <25 W m −2 in the Kuroshio–Oyashio current extension. This reveals air–sea temperature and specific humidity differences from in situ surface marine weather observations to be a principal source of bias error, overestimated over most of ocean but underestimated near the Intertropical Convergence Zone.